§ 


•  \ 


TUB.  TAAM 


OR    A 


VINDICATION   OF  THE  JEWISH   MODE 

OF  SLAUGHTERING  ANIMALS 

FOR  FOOD 


CALLED 


SHECHITAH 

BY 

AARON     ZEBI     FRIEDMAN 


TRANSLATED    FROM    THE    HEBREW 
BY  LAEMLEIN     BUTTENWIESER 


SECOND     EDITION 


NEW     YORK 

BLOCK    PUBLISHING    CO.,    738    BROADWAY 
1904 


PRESS    OF   PHILIP   COWEN 

489    FIFTH   AVENUE 

NEW   YORK 


StacR 

na 


I.  —  Sketch    of    Aaron    Zebi    Friedman 


Some  men,  modest,  pious  and  self-sacrificing-,  are  content 
.to  spend  their  lives  humbly  but  reverently  working  for  the 
Holy  Cause  of  Religion.  Who  shall  measure  their  life  work, 
the  life  of  any  one  of  them?  No  human  eye  notices,  no 
human  heart  sympathizes,  holds  true  of  many  such  a  life 
work,  or  life.  But  often  when  the  dust  of  the  Beth  Haim 
covers  the  worker,  the  value  of  his  work  is  realized,  and 
when  the  life  is  spent,  the  value  of  the  life  is  discerned. 

The  work  and  life  of  Aaron  Zebi  Friedman  eminently  il- 
lustrates what  we  have  stated. 

Modest,  pious  and  self-sacrificing,  he  spent  his  life  humbly 
but  reverently  working  for  the  Holy  Cause  so  dear  to  him. 
While  his  piety,  self-sacrifice  and  scholarship  were  indeed 
recognized  during  his  life,  it  is  even  now  that  the  value  of 
his  work  and  the  inspiration  of  his  life  appeal  to  all  who  ad- 
mire the  qualities  we  have  named,  and  who  understand  what 
work  and  life  mean  in  human  duty. 

At  a  very  early  age  he  was  acquainted  with  the  .contents 
of  the  Bible  and  Talmud.     Cabbalistic  works  were  studied 
by  him,  and  his  controversial  skill  in  Talmudic  subjects  won 
for   him    the   friendship   of  grand    Rabbi    Liberman,  whose 
daughter  Rebecca   he  subsequently  married.    At  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  was  appointed  Shohet  of  the  city  of  Slavisk 
and  the  neighboring  county,  which   post  he  held  for  sev- 
eral years.    He  was  then  called  to  fill  a  position  as  Rabbi  and 
Shochet  in  Bernkastle-on-the-Moselle. .      Here  he  remained 
several  years,  beloved  and  revered  by  all  who  knew  hirrTT 
During  this  period  he  studied  medicine,  mainly  to  benefit  the 
poor,  many  of  whom  recognized  in  him  their  benefactor.  Too 
close  application  to  his  duties  impaired  his  health  and  a  sea 
voyage  to  America  was  ordered.    The  whole  town  turned  out 


2116310 


IV. 

en  masse  to  bid  their  beloved  Rabbi  God-speed,  and  to  the 
day  of  his  death  he  was  in  correspondence  with  the  members 
of  his  flock  ,who  wrote  to  him  for  spiritual  advice  and 
guidance. 

His  letters  of  credentials  from  leading  Rabbis  of  Europe 
secured  for  him  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  this  countrv  the 
position  of  supervising  some  of  the  largest  abbatoirs  in  New 
York.  He  taught  many  pupils  shechitah  and  his  seal  was  rec- 
ognized by  the  Orthodox  Jews  of  New  York.  In  1866,  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  through  its 
President,  Mr.  Henry  Bergh,  declared  the  Jewish  method  of 
slaughtering  animals  to  be  "cruelty — needlessly  inflicted." 
But  Rabbi  Friedman's  able  defense  in  his  treatise  "Tub  Taam" 
convinced  the  Society  of  the  error  of  their  judgment.  "Tub 
Taam"  was  originally  published  in  Hebrew  and  testimonials 
commending  the  book  and  indorsing  the  author's  careful 
treatment  of  the  subject  were  received  from  leading 
rabbis  and  physicians  of  Europe  and  America.  In  1876,  the 
book  was  translated  by  Prof.  Buttenwieser  into  English,  but 
owing  to  the  illness  of  the  author  the  translation  was  never 
placed  on  sale. 

The  Book  remains  a  lasting  monument  to  his  reverent  love 
for  our  ancestral  faith  and  customs ;  a  testimony  to  his  schol- 
arship and  an  evidence  of  his  zeal  for  the  religion  in  which  he 
was  born,  for  whose  interests  he  labored  faithfully  all  his  life 
and  as  a  servant  of  which  he  yielded  up  his  breath. 

Shakespeare  tells  us  that  the  "Evil  which  men  do  lives 
after  them,  while  the  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones-" 

It  is  a  satisfaction  to  know  that  the  opposite  is  likewise 
true.  This  little  book,  long  forgotten,  rises,  as  it  were, 
otit  of  oblivion  to  resurrect  and  bless  the  memory  of  the  ear- 
liest writer  and  the  careful  translator. 

It  had  served  its  purpose  in  removing  the  mistaken,  but 
sincere,  opposition  of  the  New  York  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Animals  and  preserved  for  the  ortho- 
dox Jew  the  right,  so  precious  to  him,  of  killing  the  animal 
According  'to  th6  prescribed  Jewish  formula. 

Lately  Ihe   same  ignorant  opposition  developed  in  Den- 


V. 

ver  and  it  seemed  as  though  the  Jews  must  forego  their 
cherished  privilege  of  securing  kosher  meat. 

It  was  then  that  "The  American  Hebrew"  reprinted  copi- 
ous extracts  form  this  work  and  forwarded  it  to  representa- 
tive Jews  in  Denver.  The  clever  exposition  of  the  subject 
and  the  invincible  arguments  the  book  contained,  again 
carried  the  day,  and  Denver,  like  New  York,  withdrew  its 
opposition. 

It  was  then  that  the  children  of  the  writer  and  translator 
gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  precious  privilege  of  per- 
petuating this  little  work  by  having  it  reprinted.  This  they 
did,  not  only  out  of  respect  to  the  cherished  memory  of  the 
dear  departed  ones,  but  also  in  the  hope  that  it  may  contin- 
ue to  spread  light  upon  this  important  subject  and  that  it 
may  in  the  future  as  in  the  past  serve  to  convince  Jew  and 
Gentile  alike  that  the  Jewish  dietary  laws  were  based 
on  broad  scientific  and  hygienic  principles. 

Aaron  Zebi  Friedman  was  born  in  Poland,  Adar  i^th, 
5582,  (March  8th  1822),  and  died  in  New  York  City  the  27th 
day  of  lyar,  5636  (May  2ist,  1876). 


II.— Sketch    of    L.     Buttenwieser 


Rev.  Laemmlein  Buttenwieser,  the  translator  of  this  work, 
was  born  in  Wassertruedingen,  Bavaria,  Germany,  January 
i6th,  1825.  He  was  descended  from  a  long  line  of  well- 
known  rabbis,  his  father  having  been  Rabbi  at  Wassertruedin- 
gen. At  an  early  age,  young  Buttenwieser  evinced  great  inter- 
est in  his  Hebrew  studies  and  showed  his  remarkable  pre- 
cociousness  by  reading  the  Talmud  before  his  ninth  year. 

He  progressed  rapidly,  studying  first  wi:h  his  father  at 
Wassertruedingen,  then  at  Aschaffenburg,  where  he  attended 
the  gymnasium,  then  at  Wuerzburg,  where  he  entered  the 
university  and  finally  at  Prague,  where  he  likewise  satisfied 
his  craving  for  general  culture  by  attending  the  famoui 
university  there. 

Mr.  Buttenwieser  received  seven  degrees  (Morenus,) 
among  which  were  those  from  such  renowned  scholars 
as  Rabbi  Wechsler  at  Schwabach,  Bavaria,  Dr.  Adler  at 
Aschaffenburg,  Bavaria,  Rabbi  Seligman  Baer  Bamberger, 
Rabbi  Samuel  Freund  of  Prague,  and  Rabbi  Rappaport, 
Chief  Rabbi  of  Prague. 

All  these  great  teachers  agreed  in  pronouncing  him  one  of 
the  brightest  Talmudists  that  had  ever  sat  at  their  feet. 

Besides  his  wonderful  acquaintance  with  the  Talmud  and 
his  thorough  and  scientific  mastery  of  pure  Hebrew,  Chal- 
daic  and  Syriac,  Mr.  Buttenwieser  was  a  thorough  Latin 
and  Greek  scholar,  a  good  mathematician,  was  well  read  in 
German  literature  and  had  a  fair  acquaintance  with  the 
French  language. 

^  In  1854  he  decided  to  emigrate  to  America.  He  then 
took  up  the  study  of  English,  which  he  likewise  soon  mas- 
tered. He  arrived  in  this  country  in  July,  1854. 

Conditions  in  the  ministry  here  were  not  such  as  to  attract 
this  typical  German  scholar.  He  soon  found  that  America 


Vll. 

was  a  good  field  for  the  orator,  devoid  of  real  scholars/lip, 
rather  than  for  the  real  scholar,  unadorned  by  the  gifts  of 
oratory. 

He  was  just  one  generation  ahead  of  his  mother-country, 
and  one  generation  behind  his  adopted  country. 

To-day,  however,  when  our  American  Jewry  recognizes 
that  the  currents  of  real  Jewish  faith  and  fervor  must  flow 
from  and  be  quickened  by  the  deep  springs  of  Jewish  lore 
and  when  it  is  ready  and  anxious  to  found  colleges  to  renew 
ami  perpetuate  the  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  liter- 
ature but  experiences  great  difficulty  in  finding  profound 
scholars  to  fill  the  professorial  chairs,  a  Buttenwieser  would 
be  appreciated  and  sought  for. 

In  those  days,  however,  Mr.  Buttenwieser  found  his  rare 
Hebrew  attainments  a  comparatively  valueless  asset,  but 
his  broad  general  culture  stood  him  in  good  stead. 

He  became  teacher  of  languages,  which  vocation  he  fol- 
lowed, with  much  success,  in  Boston,  Cincinnati,  Philadel- 
phia and  New  York.  « 

In  Cincinnati,  where  he  remained  from  1856  till  1863,  he 
taught  in  the  Talmud  Yelodin  School.  In  Philadelphia 
he  was  teacher  in  the  Hebrew  Educational  Society  and  was 
Professor  of  Talmud  in  Maimonides  College,  where  his  as- 
sociates in  the  faculty  were  Drs.  Leeser  and  Jastrow.  The 
college  was  short-lived,  owing  to  lack  of  funds  and  of  stu- 
dents. 

In  1873,  he  left  for  New  York,  where  he  became  Profes- 
sor of  Languages  in  the  Public  Schools,  which  position 
he  retained  until  he  retired  from  active  life  in  1886. 

Mr.  Buttenwieser  was  too  modest  to  push  himself  for- 
ward. He  was  not  a  sparkling  fountain,  displaying  its  light 
spray  with  bright  effect  in  the  dazzling  glow  of  the  sunlight, 
but  he  was  indeed  a  deep  well  of  clear,  pure,  refreshing  wa- 
ter, where  all  who  thirsted  for  knowledge,  might  come  and 
drink  eagerly  and  leave  refreshed  and  satisfied.  Many  were 
those  who  knew  of  this  well  and  imbibed  freely  of  its  inex- 
haustible supply. 


Vlll. 

This  great  scholar  and  good  man  died  on  Yom  Kippur 
5662,  September  23rd,  1901.  In  his  death  there  passed 
away  one  of  that  small,  but  brilliant,  coterie  of  great  Ger- 
man scholars,  whose  life  and  learning  were  a  golden  link 
between  the  old  and  the  new,  who  preserved  all  that  was  so 
valuable  and  so  delightful  in  the  old  fashioned  real  Talmudic 
scholar  and  adorned  it  with  the  pleasing  garb  of  modern  cul- 
ture. 

What  a  pity  that  the  busy,  money-making,  materialistic 
age,  in  which  he  lived,  could  not  more  fully  appreciate  such 
vast  learning  and  scholarship,  coupled  with  so  pure,  so  sim- 
ple, so  virtuous  a  character. 

But,  as  if  to  prove  that  "a  man  is  greater  in  death  than 
in  life,"  his  obituary  appeared  in  newspapers  in  every  sec- 
tion of  this  broad  land,  although  he  had  been  in  retirement 
for  over  fifteen  years  prior  to  his  death.  "His  good  deeds 
rose  up  to  bless  him.'' 

Of  him  the  "Jewish  Messenger,"  in  its  obituary  notice, 
justly  said,  "Professor  Buttemvieser  had  erudition  that 
ought  to  have  been  more  widely  acknowledged  and  brought 
to  the  front.  Like  the  typical  scholars,  his  modesty  and 
unobtrusiveness  were  traits,  that  made  him  keep  to  the  back 
ground.  In  this  respect  he  resembled  Michael  Heilprin. 
Strange  want  of  foresight,  decades  ago,  that  prevented  these 
men  being  made  the  educators  of  young  Israel." 


PREFACE 


This  preface  is  intended  to  form  the  foundation  of  the  pres- 
ent work,  which  I  herewith  submit  to  the  public.  I  found  it 
the  more  necessary  to  premise  all  here  proffered,  as  I  know 
that  several  of  the  views  expressed  in  this  work  may  appeajr 
strange  to  the  medical  fraternity,  and  it  may  therefore  be  eas- 
ily inferred  that  many  physicians  will  oppose  me.  At  all 
events,  they  will  propound  difficult  questions  to  me  on 
several  points. 

For  this  reason  I  shall  here  make  known  the  considerations 
which  induced  me  to  write  and  publish  this  little  work. 

My  first  proposition  is :  The  Shechitah,  or  the  Jewish 
method  of  killing  animals,  although  slower,  is  easier  and  less 
painful  than  that  caused  by  blows  inflicted  on  tfhe  head ;  for 
no  shrinkage  and  contortion  of  the  limbs  are  perceptible 
after  dying  through  Shechitah',  as  would  be  the  case  with  an 
animal  that  dies  in  consequence  of  blows  inflicted  on  its  head. 

The  reason  is  the  following:  Although  death  does  not  en- 
sue after  Shechitah  until  all  the  blood  has  departed  from  the 
body,  we  must  not  forget  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  blood  in 
every  warm-blooded  animal ;   the  blood  of  the  members,  and 
the  life-blood.     The  blood  of  the  members  is  the  circulating 
blood  and  is  red ;  but  the  life-blood  is  of  a  blackish  Tiue.    As 
soon  as  the  black  blood  has  departed  from  the  body,  the  ani- 
mal dies  immediately. 

The  black  blood,  however,  must  leave  the  body  before  even 
the  whole  act  of  Shechitah,  viz.,  the  severing  of  the  windpipe 
and  oesophagus,  has  been  performed,  if,  as  it  is  prescribed  in 
our  religion,  not  a  mere  incision  into  the  windpipe  and  oes- 
ophagus has  been  made,  but  a  real  separation  of  the  part* 
has  taken  place,  so  that  they  stand  apart  and  the  incision  is 
apparent. 


X. 


In  this  case  the  arteries  and  veins  have  been  cut,  the  red 
and  black  blood  flows  out,  and  life  is  immediately  extinct. 
The  fact  is  noticeable  in  the  eyes  of  the  animal  immediate- 
ly after  Shechitah ;  for  they  immediately  roll  about  and  are 
closed  in  their  sockets. .  They  shortly  afterwards  are  opened 
again,  but  they  then  show  that  life  has  departed. 

My  second  proposition  is :  Through  blows  inflicted  on  the 
brain  the  blood  becomes  black  and  dark.  Now,  although  the 
life-blood,  on  which  the  existence  of  life  depends  far  more 
than  on  the  circulating  red  blood,  has  a  black  color,  still  any 
one  gifted  with  a  good  power  of  observation  will  easily  find 
that  there  is  as  .much  difference  between  the  original  clear  col- 
or of  the  real  black  life-blood,  and  that  which  was  driginally 
red  and  has  by  degeneration  become  black,  as  there  13  a  dif- 
ference between  pure  and  clear  and  dark  or  putrid  water. 

With  the  naked  eye  we  can  distinguish  both  the  red  and 
black  blood,  as  well  as  the  mixture  of  both  kinds  of  blood  of 
an  animal  on  which  the  act  of  Shechitah  has  been  performed, 
and  the  blood  that  has  been  vitiated  by  blows  inflicted  on  the 
brain.  For  the  blood  of  an  animal  killed  by  Shechitah  is  clear 
and  pure,  but  the  blood  of  an  animal  killed  by  blows  on  the 
brain  is  black  and  dark.  In  the  latter  case  the  black  color  of 
the  blood  is  not  natural,  as  is  the  case  with  the  life-blood  of 
an  animal  in  good  health  or  killed  by  Shechitah.  But  the 
black  color  only  shows  that  the  blood,  whose  original  color 
was  red,  has,  by  degeneration,  become  black. 

The  black  color  of  the  life-blood  of  an  animal  killed  by 
iblo'ws  is  likewise  unnaturally  black  and  dark,  not  clear. 

Although  chemistry  has  not  yet  investigated  and  ascer- 
tained if  blood,  as  an  article  of  food,  is  wholesome  or  injurious 
-to  the  human  system,  still  the  evidence  of  Maimonides  is  fully 
sufficient  for  us,  who  says:  Blood  begets  cruelty,  not  only  in 
the  person  who  partakes  of  it,  but  that  cruelty  is  also  inher- 
ited by  his  future  offspring.  The  Bible  also  enjoins  on  us  very 
emphatically  (Dent.  xii.  23) :  ''Only  be  sure  that  thou  eat  not 
the  blood,  for  the  blood  is  the  life." 

And  by  our  own  reason  we  can  also  ascertain  the  effect  the 
eating  of  blood  has  on  the  system.  For  every  article  of  food 


XI. 

can  only  produce  that  effect  on  the  svstem  which  is  inherent 
in  it.  Now  the  nature  of  the  animal  is  free  from  all  vices,  and 
void  of  all  virtues.  There  is  neither  envy  nor  hatred,  neither 
honor  nor  pride,  neither  bashfulness  nor  repentance,  neither 
kindness  nor  probity  to  be  found  in  an  animal.  The  whole 
ornament  of  oxen  is  their  horns.  With  them  they  gore  one 
another,  inflicting1  injury  or  even  death,  without,  however,  be- 
ing possessed  of  any  of  the  vices  mentioned.  And  although 
they  gore  one  another  as  often  as  they  meet,  still  they  do  not 
hate  each  other.  They  only  do  so  because  the  inclination  o! 
doing  so  is  innate  in  them. 

If,  then,  any  one  eats  blood,  he  partakes  of  its  properties, 
and  transfers  them  also  to  his  children  after  him.  For  by 
means  of  food  body  and  soul  are  kept  united,  and  therefore 
food  exercises  its  influence  both  on  body  and  soul.  Taste  it- 
self is  more  spiritual  than  corporeal.  Maimonides,  therefore, 
is  fully  correct.  But  this  is  only  the  case  with  the  blood, 
which  is  life  itself,  and  which  alone  has  the  effects  described. 
In  it  we  find  all  those  properties  which  are  unbecoming"  to  the 
foremost  of  all  creatures — man.  But  we  do  not  find  these 
properties  in  the  flesh,  as  that  has  no  will  of  its  own  and  waits 
with  the  members  of  the  body  for  the  orders  of  the  spirit,  itt 
order  to  execute  them  and  be  guided  by  them. 

My  third  proposition  is  : 

Besides  the  special  functions  which  all  members  of  the  body 
have  to  perform  for  the  preservation  of  the  body,  they  also 
have  to  perform  spiritual  ones  for  the  strengthening  of  body 
and  soul.  For  instance,  the  mouth/  has  to  nourish  and 
strengthen  the  body  by  eating  and  drinking-  This  is  the  bod- 
ily function,  without  which  life  would  cease.  But  tihe  mouth 
is  also  the  organ  of  the  voice,  whfch  is  quite  necessajry  for  the 
preservation  of  the  whole  race  of  animals.  .For  by  the  voice 
the  different  animals  recognize  and  call  one  another. 

This  becomes  yet  more  apparent  if  we  consider  the  human 
voice ;  for  every  one  of  the  five  organs  of  speech  in  tfiw  first 
place  serves  its  part  to  support  our  system  by  providing  it 
with  proper  food. 

The  lips,  which  are  the  doors  of  the  mouth,  and  open  to  re- 


XII. 

ceive  the  food,  and  close  to  prevent  the  food  from  falling  out, 
produce  the  labial  letters. 

The  teeth,  which  bite  and  grind  the  food,  produce  the  den- 
tal letters. 

The  tongue,  which  turns  the  food  about  in  the  mouth,  for 
its  thorough  mastication,  produces  the  lingual  letters. 

The  palate,  whose  function  is  to  taste,  produces  the  palatal 
letters. 

The  windpipe,  which  promotes  the  digestion  of  the  food  by 
providing  it  with  saliva,  produces  the  guttural  letters. 

Likewise  the  brain,  which  gives  strength  to  all  members, 
produces  thought. 

The  hands,  with  which  we  work,  have  also  the  power  of 
feeling.  The  urinary  organs  likewise  subserve  genital  pur- 
poses. The  kidneys,  which  prepare  the  urine,  are  the  advisory 
organs  of  the  soul.    In  the  heart,  which  is  the -source  of  the 
blood,  wisdom  resides. 

And  this  is  the  case  with  all  organs.  They  all  have  to  serve 
two  masters,  the  body  and  the  soul.  This  means :  they  have 
to  perform  bodily  functions  far  the  preservation  of  the  body, 
and  spiritual  functions  for  the  preservation  of  the  soul. 

But  my  tffteory  must  not  be  -refuted  by  offering  me  the 
instance  of  a  man  who  was  sick  with  the  laughing  sickness, 
and  whose  spleen  had  been  removed  from  his  body,  and 
yet  was  not  ^ow-red  by  such  operation.  For  it  may  be  the 
sickness  was  incurable,  because  the  veins  were  affected  and 
diseased  up  to  the  heart  and  brain.  In  this  case  the  sick- 
ness could  not  be  cured  any  more,  as  I  have  explained  in 
'Rule  VIII. 

My  fourth  proposition  concerns  animals  of  prey.  They 
vent  their  rage  and  fury,  that  burn  like  fire,  upon  the  bodies 
of  the  animals,  attacked  by  them,  through  their  crooked 
nails  and  'teeth.  The  formation  of  the  feet  and  teeth  of 
<ttttittlab  of  prey  indicates  'that.  For  it  Jies  in  the  nature  of 
«fc'nimals  to  walk  on  their  paws  and  feet.  Why  now  have 
the  nails  tff  animals  -off  prey  been  created  pointed  and 
crooked  and  their  teeth  likewise,  if  it  were  not  that  'they 
have  -'aftfothefr  function  "to  perform  by  means  of  those  nails 


X11I. 


and  teeth,  viz.,  to  devour  other  animals  and  to  pour  their 
venom  into  them? 

This  instinct  to  devour  other  animals  in  their  wrath  and 
fury,  animals  of  prey  cannot  resist.  But  they  can  only  give 
vent  to  their  furious  instinct  by  means  of  the  organization 
of  their  members,  which  the  Creator  has  thus  shaped  and 
formed  for  that  purpose. 

But  my  proposition  must  not  be  refuted  by  the  argument 
held  out  to  me,  that  we  know  instances  of  men  who  were 
attacked  and  wounded  by  animals  of  prey  and  were  cured. 
For  \ve  cannot  draw  a  parallel  between  man  and  other  liv- 
ing beings.  Concerning  man,  the  Lord  ordained  (Gen. 
ix.  2) :  "And  the  fear  of  you  and  the  dread  of  you  shall  be 
on  all  the  animals  of  the  earth  and  all  the  fowls  of  the  heav- 
en." But  all  the  other  animals  are  killed  by  the  poison  of 
animals  of  prey. 

There  are,  however,  two  .kinds  of  animals,  whose  venom 
kills  even  man,  viz.,  the  serpent,  in  reference  to  which  Adam 
was  cursed  by  the  words  (Gen.  iii.  15):  "And  thou  shalt 
wound  his  heel,"  and  mad  animals.  For  their  sickness  or 
madness  derives  its  origin  also  from  from  the  curse  that 
was  pronounced  over  Adam,  and  therefore  they  can  injure 
man  by  their  poison. 

But  no  other  animal  besides  the  two  mentioned  is  able  to 
injure  man  in  this  way. 

But  the  words  of  our  Rabbins  deserve  full  credence,  that 
beasts  of  prey  have  poison  in  their  teeth  and  nails,  to  tear 
and  kill  the  animals  attacked  by  them. 

Still  our  sages  set  a  limit  both  to  the  devouring  and  the 
devoured  animal,  that  means,  they  tell  us  which  animals 
can  be  killed  by  the  poison  of  certain  animals  and  which 
not. 

And  the  animals  that  can  kill  by  their  poison  can  do  so 
only  with  certain  members,  adapted  to  that  purpose,  and 
only  if  those  members  are  in  their  sound,  perfect  state,  and 
connected  with  the  body,  but  not  otherwise. 

Nor  can  the  serpent  bite  except  when  in  anger,  in  which 


XI V. 

state  it  pours  out  its  venom  through  the  biting  of  its  teeth 
and  the  spittle  of  its  mouth. 

But  if  the  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  serpent,  by  which  it 
bites,  have  been  removed,  it  becomes  harmless,  though  it 
be  full  of  rage  and  anger.  Nor  can  the  tongue  and  teeth 
of  a  lion  or  leopard  inflict  a  mortal  wound  after  they  have 
been  separated  from  the  body  of  those  animals. 

If,  for  instance,  a  man  took  a  lion's  teeth  or  claws  and 
scratched  an  animal,  even  if  he  did  that  in  the  most  violent 
passion  and  the  fiercest  anger,  he  still  could  not  work  any 
fatal  injury,  because  the  teeth  and  claws  of  animals  of  prey 
are  only  the  servants  of  those  animals  themselves  and  not 
of  any  other  being. 

Likewise,  if  a  serpent  bites  in  its  wrath  into  an  inanimate 
object,  although  it  pours  out  its  wrath  and  spittle  over  that 
object,  still  the  venom  evaporates  and  becomes  powerless 
in  the  air,  just  as  it  is  the  case  with  any  hot  liquid  that  is 
exposed  to  free  air  for  some  time,  and  loses  in  this  way  it» 
power  and  fire. 

For  the  Creator  has  ordained  all  things  to  work  in  a  cer- 
tain way,  and  in  no  other.  ' 


TUB     T  A  AM 


The  following  letter  has  been  sent  by  the  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  to  Mr.  Henry  West- 
heimer. 

SOCIETY    PREVENTION    OF    CRUELTY   TO    ANIMAL 

Rooms  of  the  Society, 
No.  826  Broadway,  Corner  of  I2th  Street,    ' 

New  York,  January  9,  1866. 
Mr.  Henry  Westheimer: 

Sir: — An  employee  in  the  service  of  this  society  reports 
to  me  that  the  cruelty  inflicted — needlessly — on  dumb  ani- 
mals while  slaughtering  them  at  your  establishment,  is  of 
the  most  barbarous,  revolting,  and  wicked  character. 

This  statement  has  before  been  communicated  to  this  So- 
ciety, and  it  is  proper  that  I  call  your  attention  to  the  fact, 
with  a  view  to  its  immediate  correction. 

You  are  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  this  State,  as  well  as 
that  higher  law  of  God,  thus  to  mangle  and  torture  His 
creatures. 

You  should,  at  least,  so  far  feel  for  the  miserable  lot  of 
the  creatures  which  support,  and  in  so  many  ways  contrib- 
ute to  the  well-being  of  mankind,  by  killing  them  with  mer- 
ciful dispatch,  and  in  no  way  can  this  be  so  perfectly  done 
as  by  a  blow  from  a  pointed  axe  on  the  head. 

At  any  rate,  these  horrible  scenes  must  end,  and  you  must 
not  suppose  that  the  laws  of  this  State  are  to  be  daily  vio- 
lated by  you  without  responsibility  any  more  than  by  any 
other  citizen. 

If  you  believe  that  there  is  a  God  in  Heaven — tremble! 
for  you  may  be  certain  that  misfortune  will  overtake  you 
sooner  or  later,  for  these  infractions  of  His  natural  laws. 


16 

I  desire  to  hear  from  you  on  this  subject  before  addresc- 
ing  myself  to  the  public  authorities,  which  I  shall  do,  if  un- 
heeded by  you ;  but  I  trust  that  this  appeal  will  obtain  a 
share  of  that  mercy  and  pity  which  you  yourself  will  one 
day  ask  of  your  Maker. 

Yours,  etc., 

Henry   Bergh,   President. 
Society   Prevention   Cruelty  to  Animals. 

The  following  is  mv  answer: 

It  is  an  apparent  truth  that  the  nature  of  death,  and  the 
feeling  at  the  hour  of  death,  at  the  time  when  body  and  soul 
are  separated,  are  unknown  to  all  living  beings.  For,  since 
no  living  being  is  subject  to  two  or  more  different  kinds  of 
death,  it  cannot  possibly  find  out  and  tell  us  the  difference 
between  one  kind  of  death  and  the  other.  Nor  has  yet  any 
living  being  come  back  after  its  death  to  describe  to  us  the 
particulars  of  death,  for  the  mouth  of  all  beings  is  sealed 
forever  as  soon  as  they  are  dead.  Still  our  Rabbins  said: 
There  are  903  different  kinds  of  death,  and  they  relied  on 
the  Biblical  verse  (Psalms  Ixviii.  20)  :  "And  unto  God  the 
Lord  belong  the  issues  from  death";  since  the  Hebrew 
term  for  issues,  "Tozaoth,"  amounts  to  903,  if  we  take  the 
letters  of  the  word  "Tozaoth"  as  figures. 

They  also  described  the  most  painful  and  most  painless 
kinds  of  death.  They  said  that,  in  the  case  of  the  most 
painful  kind  of  death,  the  soul  departs  from  the  body  with 
the  same  difficulty  with  which  wool  is  taken  out  from 
thorns ;  but  in  the  easiest  kind  of  death,  body  and  soul  part 
with  the  same  ease  with  which  a  hair  is  drawn  out  of  milk. 

In  the  quoted  68th  Psalm  the  severest  or  most  painful 
manner  of  death  is  described,  and  it  is  said  that  the  Lord's 
enemies  are  chastised  and  killed  by  it.  The  words  of  the 
Psalmist  run  in  this  way :  "Surely  God  shall  strike  the  head 
of  His  enemies."  The  Psalmist  also  describes  to  us  the 
particular  place  of  the  head  where  He  strikes  them,  so  that 
death  will  be  more  painful,  and  he  says:  "On  the  skull," 


17 

where  the  hair  is  parted,  He  strikes  the  head  of  him  wao 
walks  in  his  transgressions.  This  is,  therefore,  the  sever- 
est kind  of  death.  And  yet  this  is  the  very  spot  of  the  head 
where  they  strike  the  animal,  in  order  to  kill  it  and  prer 
pare  it  for  human  food.  And  we  can  clearly  see  from  this, 
that  death,  produced  by  blows  inflicted  on  the  head,  is 
neither  the  easiest  kind  of  death  for  the  animal  that  is  killed, 
nor  does  it  produce  wholesome  food,  as  I  shall  show  yet 
more  explicitly.  Likewise  T  shall  show,  by  clear  and  rea- 
gent proofs,  that  the  Shechitah,  and  the  Shechitah  alone, 
is  the  fittest  and  easiest  death ;  for  by  the  violence  of  the 
struggle  and  spasm  of  the  members  that  take  place  at  the 
time  of  the  death  of  an  animal,  we  can  judge  of  the  high 
degree  of  the  pain  and  agony  which  the  body  and  its  limbs 
suffer  at  the  hour  of  death. 

But,  in  the  first  place,  we  must  describe  the  different 
parts  and  members  of  the  animal,  which,  through  their 
being  united,  and  as  long  as  they  are  united,  constitute  the 
living  animal.  It  is  necessary  for  us  to  know  that  every 
animal,  when  its  members  have  been  united  and  inclosed 
by  muscles  and  skin,  consists  of  two  distinct  bodies — the 
interior  and  exterior  body.  Through  their  being  united 
in  some  places,  they  become  one  body  and  spirit.  The  ex- 
terior body  is  formed  of  the  head,  hands  or  forefeet,  feet 
or  hindfeet,  all  members,  sinews,  muscles,  bones,  and  the 
whole  structure,  which  is  covered  by  the  skin.  They  are 
all  closely  connected  and  united.  The  interior  body  con- 
sists of  the  heart,  intestines,  and  the  organs  that  are  con- 
nected with  them ;  as  the  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys.  Thev 
lie  in  the  body  just  as  if  they  were  lying  in  a  vessel,  and  they 
are  not  closely  united  with  the  exterior  body.  For  there 
is  only  a  slight  connection  of  the  windpipe  and  gullet  with 
the  jaw.  Still,  slight  as  this  connection  is,  animal  life  de- 
pends on  it,  wherefore  it  must  be  guarded  with  the  utmost 
care.  The  connection  of  the  other  organs  is  effected  only 
by  the  blood-vessels  that  extend  from  the  heart  into  the 
body.  For  the  heart  is  the  source  of  the  veins  and  arteries, 
and  the  fountain  of  the  blood.  For  the  exterior  body,  -the 


18 

Almighty  created  one  special  member  that  must  be  guarded 
very  carefully;  it  is  the  brain.  Its  chief  seat  is  in  the  skull, 
and  it  extends  over  the  whole  spine.  The  skilll  and  the 
spine  inclose  it  like  a  wall,  to  protect  it  from  every  injury, 
and  it  is,  indeed,  in  great  need  of  that  protection.  It  is 
the  brain  that  gives  strength  to  all  parts  and  members  of 
the  body,  and  keeps  them  together.  If  the  brain  is  re- 
moved from  its  proper  place,  all  limbs  are  shaken  and  lose 
their  strength.  The  animal  cannot  live  then  any  longer.. 
The  brain  itself  is  not  united  with  the  exterior  body  by  a 
strong  connection,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other  members; 
but  only  through  the  brains  of  the  heart  that  extend  over 
all  parts  of  the  body  and  its  members,  and  ramify  into  my- 
riads of  capillaries.  They  are  united  with  the  brain  by  its 
membrane  that  surrounds  it,  and  they  empty  into  the  open- 
ings of  that  membrane,  in  order  to  convey  nourishment 
(that  is,  blood)  into  the  brain.  When  that  membrane  is 
peeled  off  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  the  former  remains 
as  a  clear,  shining  substance.  This  substance  gives  strength 
to  all  members,  imparts  feeling  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
is  called  the  head.  It  rules  and  governs  as  the  king  of  a 
country,  or  the  father  of  a  family. 

For  the  intestines,  that  form  the  inner  body,  the  Al- 
mighty created  also  one  special  member,  the  heart.  It  is 
a  most  important  part  of  the  system,  and  is  hidden  in  a  bag 
which  preserves  and  guards  it.  The  heart  likewise  has  not 
a  strong  and  firm  connection  with  the  body  and  intestines, 
as  is  the  case  with  other  members  that  are  joined  by  sin- 
ews. !It  is  only  connected  by  means  of  veins  that  proceed 
from  its  right  and  left,  and  extend  and  ramify  over  all  parts 
of  the  body  and  every  member.  These  veins  extend  to  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord.  From  them  (the  brain  and  spin- 
al cord)  the  blood  flows  back  to  every  part  of  the  body,  until 
it  reaches  the  left  chamber  of  the  heart.  There  it  is  puri- 
fied and  receives  new  strength.  It  passes  then  over  to  the 
right  chamber  of  the  heart  and  resumes  its  circulating 
course. 

For  the  heart  is  the  fountain  of  the  veins,  and  the  spring 


19 

that  furnishes  the  life-blood.  Another  function  of  the  heart 
is  the  assistance  it  affords  to  all  parts  and  members  of  the 
body  in  feeling  pain.  This  communication  between  the 
heart  and  brain  on  the  one  side,  and  all  parts  of  the  body 
on  the  other,  is  kept  up  by  the  veins.  For  every  vein  is 
connected  at  one  end  with  the  brain  and  at  the  other  with 
the  heart. 

The  lungs  inhale,  through  the  windpipe,  fresh  and  clear 
air,  to  cool  the  heart  in  order  that  the  heat  of  the  blood  in 
the  heart  shall  not  become  too  intense,  and  shall  not  kill  . 
the  animal.  Therefore  the  lungs  breathe  continually,  either 
in  long  and  distinct,  or  in  short  and  connected  breathings. 
For  it  is  known  that,  if  an  animal  is  tired  and  fatigued,  it 
breathes  incessantly,  because  the  blood  in  the  heart  has  be- 
come hot  by  fatigue  and  is  in  need  of  being  cooled  off  by 
a  fresh  supply  of  air.  But  if  the  animal  is  not  fatigued,  it 
breathes  in  the  regular  way. 

All  food,  both  the  solid  and  the  liquid,  passes  through 
the  oesophagus  into  the  rumen,  from  there  into  the  stom- 
ach. In  it  the  food  is  digested  by  the  assistance  of  the 
liver,  and  is  decomposed  into  blood,  nutritious  matter,  and 
fat.  But  the  refuse  is  driven  out  through  the  intestines. 
The  blood  first  enters  the  heart;  but  the  food,  the  sinews. 
In  this  way  the  animal  is  nourished. 

The  brain  has  two  cavities  in  which  the  five  senses,  feel- 
ing, smell,  hearing,  taste,  and  seeing,  have  their  seat.  But 
these  five  senses  are  external  and  limited,  because  they  can 
only  be  affected  by  such  things  as  really  exist.  But  the 
power  of  imagination  is  unlimited.  It  has  a  wider  scope 
than  the  five  senses,  and  may  have  for  its  object  just  as 
well  a  thing  which  is  not  in  existence,  as  one  which  is  in 
existence,  or  just  as  well  an  impossible  thing  as  one  which 
is  possible. 

The  power  of  imagination  has  also  its  seat  in  the  head 
and  brain.  The  brain  communicates  its  thoughts  immedi- 
ately to  the  heart,  to  investigate  and  examine  them.  And 
since  the  heart  has  two  counsellors,  and  is  gifted  with  rea- 
son, it  examines  quite  closely  and  clearly  as  to  the  correct- 


20 

ness  of  anything.  Therefore  the  wise  king  said :  "I  gave 
my  heart,"  "I  said  to  my  heart,"  "I  said  in  my  heart,"  and 
many  similar  phrases  which  all  allude  to  the  heart. 

The  heart  has  also  two  cavities :  a  large  one  on  the 
right,  and  a  small  one  on  the  left.  In  the  right  cavity  it 
receives  the  blood  from  the  food  which  has  been  digested 
by  the  assistance  of  the  liver.  It  sends  forth  the  blood  in- 
to the  whole  body  and  into  every  member,  until  it  reaches 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  From  there  the  blood  flows  back 
through  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  until  it  arrives  at  the  left 
cavity  of  the  heart.  There  the  blood  is  renewed  and  flows 
back  again  into  the  right  cavity  and  resumes  its  circulating 
cdurse  again.  The  two  cavities  of  the  heart  are  connected 
with  the  cavities  of  the  brain  where  the  five  senses  have 
their  seat. 

But  imagination  originates  in  the  brain ;  it  has  no  limits 
and  cares  not  for  the  laws  of  Nature.  The  heart  only  sets 
bounds  to  it.  But  as  far  as  feeling  is  concerned,  the  heart 
and  brain  are  equally  affected,  since  feeling  arises  from  pres- 
sure of  the  veins,  and  these  are  connected  at  their  two  ends 
with  the  brain  and  the  heart.  Therefore  heart  and  brain 
feel  simultaneously,  in  order  that  they  may  preserve  and 
guard  the  animal's  life.  For  through  the  veins  the  feeling 
of  pain  is  conveyed  to  the  heart  and  brain,  as  Scripture 
says  (Isaiah  i.  5) :  "The  whole  head  is  sick,  and  the  whole 
heart  faint." 

Now,  wounds  and  hurts  generally  affect  the  members 
of  the  exterior  body,  but  diseases  of  the  system  have  their 
seat  in  the  parts  of  the  inner  body,  as  in  the  heart  and  the 
intestines.  Wherefore  every  sudden  death  and  the  disease 
of  fits  arise  only  from  inner  members,  as  the  heart,  intes- 
tines, brain,  and  through  the  deterioration  of  the  blood  that 
has  been  brought  on  by  some  cause  or  accident. 

Although  the  inner  members  have  no  blood,  still  the  heart 
is  the  source  and  origin  of  the  blood,  and  as  soon  as  the 
fountain  is  spoiled  and  corrupt,  everything  becomes  cor- 
rupt, and  sickness  sets  in.  For  as  soon  as  the  blood  has 
become  bad.  it  immediately  kills  the  animal.  Wherefore 


sudden  death,  caused  by  sickness  of  the  heart  or  brain,  is 
called  in  German  "Schlag"  (stroke,  apoplexy,  or  paralysis), 
as  "stroke  of  the  heart"  (Herzschlag)  or  "stroke  of  the 
brain"  (Gehirnschlag).  These  diseases  have  been  called  so, 
because  they  attack  and  kill  instantaneously,  just  as  a  Tnan 
strikes  another  man  and  kills  him. 

From  the  intestines  comes,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sick- 
ness called  "convulsions"  or  "cramps,"  which  is  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  diseases. 

No  sickness  like  any  of  those  mentioned  attacks  the 
members  of  the  external  body.  Even  if  they  are  broken 
or  cut,  instantaneous  death  does  not  ensue. 

And  now,  dear  reader,  I  am  not  one  of  the  great  writers 
who  know  how  to  present  their  thoughts  and  ideas  in  such 
a  clear  and  comprehensive  way,  that  the  reader  cannot  but 
clearly  and  fully  understand  what  they  intended  to  say.  I 
therefore  beg  the  dear  reader  that  he  may  take  pains  to 
comprehend  the  true  meaning  of  my  words.  He  then  will 
find  the  right  and  true  way,  and  he  will  see  that  the  laws  of 
the  Jewish  religion  for  the  Shechitah  show  God's  kindness 
and  mercy  towards  His  creatures.  For  He  created  all 
beings  in  His  great  mercy,  and  owing  to  His  endless  kind- 
ness He  ordained  to  select  for  them  an  easy  and  calm  death, 
in  order  to  alleviate  the  pain  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  to 
make  the  meat  of  the  killed  animal  more  wholesome  and 
palatable. 

For  God  created  all  creatures  for  His  own  glory,  and  He 
created  them  on  the  condition  that  they  should  become  the 
food  of  man,  His  noblest  creature,  and  that  they  should  die 
only  in  the  way  He  ordained,  which  is  the  easiest  death,  as  I 
shall  explain.  And  this  way  of  killing  is  the  best  for  both, 
viz.,  for  the  animal  that  is  killed,  and  for  man  that  con- 
sumes its  flesh. 

Every  way  of  killing  the  animal,  that  inflicts  great  pain 
on  it,  although  it  brings  on  instantaneous  death,  spoils  and 
deteriorates  the  blood ;  and  although  death  ensues  very 
quickly,  still  it  is  injurious  for  the  consumer,  and  therefore 
detrimental  to  both  animal  and  man. 


22 

But  the  way  of  killing  that  brings  on  an  easy  death  with- 
out much  pain  ought  to  be  chosen  for  killing  the  animal,  in 
order  to  obtain  its  flesh  for  the  food  of  man. 

For  the  illustration  of  what  I  said,  and  in  order  to  prove 
that  what  I  said  is  correct,  T  shall  offer  eight  instances  of 
increasing  and  of  lessening  pain. 

1st.  If  a  man  cuts  into  his  flesh,  even  deeply,  but  cuts 
quickly  and  only  once,  he  does  not  feel  so  much  pain  as 
if  he  cuts  into  it  only  a  little,  and  afterwards  cuts  again  into 
the  old  cut,  although  the  two  cuts  do  not  form  as  large  and 
deep  a  cut  as  the  one  that  was  produced  by  cutting  once,  but 
very  quickly.  The  reason  of  this  is,  because  cutting  into 
an  old  cut  causes  greater  pain  than  cutting  once  quickly 
into  sound  flesh, 

2d.  Cutting  with  a  knife  to  and  fro,  without  pressing 
the  knife  downward,  does  not  cause  so  much  pain  as  if  one 
presses  the  knife  downward  and  does  not  move  it  to  and 
fro.  For  the  pain  caused  by  pressing  the  knife  downward 
produces  heat  and  inflammation  in  the  wound. 

3d.  A  cut  inflicted  by  a  healthy,  agile  man  does  not  pro- 
duce as  much  pain  as  the  cut  of  a  drunken  or  old  man,  or 
of  one  whose  hands  tremble  or  are  heavy. 

4th.  To  pierce  a  knife  into  sound  flesh,  and  then  cut  the 
flesh  of  the  wound,  is  more  painful  than  a  mere  cut,  because 
piercing  and  cutting  are  two  different  kinds  of  pain. 

5th.  Cutting  with  a  knife  that  has  an  indentation  or 
notch  causes  very  severe  pain,  and  is  very  poisonous  and 
dangerous,  but  a  cut  with  a  sharp,  smooth  knife,  does  not 
produce  so  much  pain,  is  not  poisonous,  and  dangerous,  and 
if  it  can  be  healed,  heals  quickly. 

6th.  To  tear  loose  a  part  of  the  flesh  causes  greater  pain 
than  if  it  is  cut  off  by  a  knife.  It  does  not  heal  so  quickly 
either.  All  this  is  evident. 

7th.  If,  immediately  after  inflicting  a  cut,  warm  water  of 
the  temperature  of  the  blood  is  applied  to  the  wound,  pain 
ceases,  and  the  blood  flows  without  interruption.  But  if 
the  wound  is  washed  out  with  cold  water,  the  flow  of  blood 


23 

is  stopped,  and  severe  pain  is  felt,  just  as  the  pricking  of 
pins. 

8th.  If  a  member  has  been  cut  off  the  body,  the  body 
does  not  feel  any  pain  any  longer  through  that  member, 
and  as  soon  as  the  wound  is  healed,  the  member  that  has 
been  cut  off  never  causes  any  pain.  But  if  a  member  has 
been  destroyed  by  sickness,  it  causes  pain  even  after  the 
member  has  been  fully  destroyed,  just  as  if  it  were  yet  con- 
nected with  the  body.  For  instance,  if  the  disease  had  its 
seat  in  the  toes,  and  the  disease  destroyed  the  whole  ;".~>ot, 
still,  if  any  event  takes  place  which  would  affect  that  sick- 
ness, as,  for  instance,  rainy  weather  or  a  snowfall,  pain  of 
the  toes  is  felt,  just  as  if  they  were  yet  connected  with  the 
body,  and  had  yet  life  in  them.  For  the  veins  of  the  af- 
fected member  that  convey  sensibility  to  the  heart  and  brain 
have  also  been  affected  by  that  incurable  disease.  But 
these  remained  in  their  old  place.  Therefore,  every  cir- 
cumstance that  aggravates  the  disease  is  felt  by  the  sick 
person  or  animal,  even  after  the  diseased  member  has  been 
separated  from  the  body,  as  is  well  known  to  physicians. 

Now,  kind  reader,  remember  everything  well  I  have  said 
here  and  do  not  forget  it. 

See  furthermore.  As  soon  as  the  windpipe  and  oesoph- 
agus are  cut  apart  in  the  middle  of  the  throat,  both  bodies 
are  separated  from  one  another;  viz.,  the  external  body 
with  the  brain  is  by  itself,  and  the  internal  body,  viz.,  the 
intestines  and  the  heart,  is  likewise  by  itself,  and  they  do 
not  impart  either  blood  or  food  or  perception  to  one  an- 
other any  more.  Nor  has  either  the  least  influence  any 
more  on  the  other,  to  impart  any  pain  or  sickness  by  the  de- 
terioration of  the  blood,  because  the  blood  pours  down  to 
the  ground  in  good  color  and  sound  state.  And  a,-  soon 
as  the  windpipe  and  oesophagus  are  cut.  the  intestines  lie 
in  the  external  body  as  in  any  other  vessel,  because  there 
is  no  connection  between  them  any  longer.  Although  they 
are  connected  yet  in  the  anus,  by  which  excrement  is  ex- 
pelled, still  this  is  not  connection  enough  to  bring  on  any 


24 

disease,  as  this  is  known  to  physicians  and  as  we  have  ex- 
plained. 

The  lungs  inhale  pure  air  through  the  windpipe,  also 
after  Shechitah,  as  in  the  sound  state  of  the  animal,  and  fan 
the  heart  as  'ong  as  the  animal  struggles  in  the  agonies  of 
death,  in  order  to  cool  the  heart.  In  this  way,  the  heat  of 
the  blood  does  not  become  too  intense,  and  the  blood  con- 
tinually decreases  by  flowing  to  the  ground  until  the  ani- 
mal dies  by  losing  its  life,  that  is  its  blood,  entirely,  for  the 
blood  is  the  life. 

Nor  can  the  veins  in  the  other  members,  that  have  not 
been  separated  by  the  Shechitah,  receive  any  more  blood, 
because  the  circulation  of  the  blood  has  been  stopped  by 
the  cutting  of  the  windpipe,  gullet,  and  arteries  of  the 
throat,  and  the  blood  pours  down  to  the  ground  on  both 
sides  of  the  severed  parts,  viz.,  the  windpipe,  gullet,  and 
arteries. 

The  skilful  operation  in  the  act  of  Shechitah,  according 
to  the  Tsraelitish  law,  depends  on  two  conditions :  on  the 
fitness  of  the  Shochet  (the  man  who  performs  the  Shecni- 
tah),  and  on  that  of  the  knife.  By  Shochet  we  mean  a  care- 
ful and  active  or  brisk  performer.  But  one  who  is  drunk, 
or  whose  hands  tremble,  who  is  weak,  who  is  not  well  versed 
in  the  laws  of  Shechitah  or  in  the  laws  of  examining  the 
inner  structure  of  the  animal,  or  one  who  does  not  believe 
in  the  Mosaic  and  Israelitish  law,  as,  for  instance,  one  who 
breaks  the  Sabbath,  is  not  called  a  Shochet,  but  his  name 
is  "Nabal,"  miscreant,  and  an  animal  killed  by  such  a  man 
is  called  "Nebelah"  or  "dead  of  itself."  But  no  Israelite 
is  allowed  to  eat  a  Nebelah,  as  the  Bible  says :  "Ye  shall 
not  eat  any  Nebelah,  or  anything  that  dieth  of  itself." 
(Dent.  xvi.  21.)  Although  such  an  animal  is  not  a  "Nebe- 
lah" by  itself,  but  on  account  of  the  Nabal  who  slaughtered  it. 
The  second  condition  of  a  good  Shechitah  is  a  good  knife, 
that  is,  one.  of  the  required  length,  that  is  sharp  and  smooth 
without  the  least  indentation,  in  order  to  cut  with  it  the 
windpipe  and  the  oesophagus  in  the  middle  of  the  throat 


25 

without  stopping  and  without  pressing  down  the  knife  in 
the  least,  in  full  accordance  with  all  the  laws  that  pertain 
to  Shechitah.  In  this  way  the  two  bodies  of  the  animal 
are  separated  from  one  another  in  the  easiest  and  best  man- 
ne,r.  All  the  other  auxiliaries,  intended  to  alleviate  the 
suffering  and  pain  after  the  act  of  Shechitah  until  the  mo- 
ment of  death,  come  of  themselves.  As  soon  as  the  wind- 
pipe and  gullet  are  cut,  the  arteries  instantaneously  pour 
out  their  blood  around  and  upon  the  cut,  on  the  right  and 
left,  like  water,  in  exactly  the  right  temperature.  In  this 
way  they  wash  out  the  wound,  and  surely  pain  ceases  im- 
mediately. 

Another  common  means  of  alleviating  the  pain  of  a 
wound  is  also  found  in  the  throat.  I  mean  the  breathing 
over  the  place  of  a  wound.  For  it  is  customary,  if  a  man 
has  an  inflamed  wound,  that  he  breathes  over  the  place  of 
the  wound  and  the  inflammation,  to  mitigate  the  pain,  and 
momentary  relief  is  obtained  in  this  way.  But  Shechitah 
offers  this  very  remedy.  For  the  windpipe  constantly  ex- 
hales its  breath  over  the  cut  to  allay  pain,  and  undoubtedly 
pain  ceases  for  the  moment.  (And  that  is  a  full  proof  that 
the  Creator  from  the  very  beginning  ordained  that  every 
clean  animal  should  be  subject  to  Shechitah,  and  that  Shech- 
itah should  be  performed  on  the  throat,  because  there  is 
no  other  place  so  fit  for  a  comparatively  painless  Shechitah 
as  the  throat.  For  in  the  throat  the  auxiliaries  that  are 
needed  to  alleviate  the  pain  present  themselves  spontane- 
ously. But  that  is  not  the  case  with  any  other  part  of  the 
body.) 

And  from  the  very  beginning,  when  God  created  His 
creatures  and  ordained  that  animals  should  serve  for  hu- 
man food,  He  commanded  the  Israelites  to  alleviate  the 
pains  and  sufferings  of  animals  by  killing  them  in  the  kind 
way  of  Shechitah. 

As  soon  as  the  operation  of  Shechitah  has  been  per- 
formed and  the  blood  flows,  pain  ceases,  because  there  is 
nothing  left  to  receive  or  communicate  the  pain.  For  the 
head  and  body  are  separated  from  the  intestines  and  the 


26 

heart,  and  the  blood  is  flowing  out  to  the  ground.  Nor 
exists  there  any  longer  any  communication  of  feeling  be- 
tween the  two  bodies,  that  any  pain  should  be  conducted 
from  one  body  to  the  other. 

The  lungs  continually  inhale  pure  and  fresh  air  and  cool 
the  heart  just  as  in  lifetime,  and  all  pain  ceases.  And  when 
the  animal  dies,  the  flesh  remains  sound  and  clean,  pure 
and  good  for  food.  But  by  any  cut  inflicted  farther  up  or 
down  than  the  windpipe  or  gullet,  or  in  any  place  where 
the  windpipe  and  gullet  have  not  been  touched,  the  two 
bodies  have  not  been  separated  and  therefore  remain  one 
body  in  every  respect.  They  communicate  pain  to  one  an- 
other; their  blood  degenerates  by  their  mutual  influence: 
and  they  receive  from  one  another  any  sickness  or  injury 
(like  cholera  or  paralysis). 

So  it  is  also  with  the  five  rules  that  make  the  Shechitah 
unlawful,  as :  a,  if  the  Shochet  separated  the  windpipe  or 
gullet  by  pressing  on  them  with  the  knife,  or  b,  if  he  killed 
with  a  knife  that  has  a  notch,  or  c,  if  he  put  the  knife  un- 
derneath the  windpipe  or  gullet,  or  d,  if  he  tore  loose  the 
windpipe  or  the  gullet,  or  e,  if  the  Shochet  is  drunk  or  if 
his  hands  tremble.  From  all  such  Shechitoth  (ways  of 
killing)  it  is  forbidden  to  eat,  because  they  all  are  injurious 
to  the  animal,  and  all  these  defects  took  place  when  the  two 
Bodies  were  still  united  and  therefore  still  one  body. 

Although  those  defects  as,  for  instance,  if  he  paused  dur- 
ing the  Shechitah,  or  if  he  used  a  knife  that  had  a  notch, 
mav  have  had  influence  on  the  Shechitah  only  during  the 
duration  of  one  second,  still  their  influence  is  injurious  to 
the  blood  of  the  whole  body  and  all  the  members,  as  we 
see  it  manifested  when  blows  that  reach  the  brain  are  dealt 
on  the  head  of  the  animal.  Instantly  those  blows  affect 
the  whole  body  with  the  quickness  of  lightning,  the  mem- 
bers and  sinews  are  bent,  they  are  seized  by  fits,  the  blood 
becomes  black  like  pitch,  and  surely  the  animal  dies  from 
nothing  else  but  cholera  and  apoplexy.  Such  meat  is  not 
clean  and  fit  to  be  eaten,  and  such  a  way  of  killing  is  in- 
jurious both  to  man  and  beast,  as  I  shall  yet  explain.  AH 


27 

this  is  vejy  plain  to  men  of  understanding,  and  lovers  of 
truth  will  comprehend  that,  as  long  as  the  living  animal 
forms  one  body,  it  is  affected  by  every  evil  influence  and 
exposed  to  every  accident,  and  if  that  evil  influence  or  that 
accident  should  last  even  only  one  second,  still  the  animal 
will  suffer  from  it  and  will  die  of  a  hard  death,  and  then  the 
flesh  of  the  animal  is  dangerous  to  the  consumers.  But 
when  the  bodies  have  been  separated,  neither,  can  benefit 
or  injure  the  other  any  longer,  for  all  communication  be- 
tween them  has  ceased. 

Let  us  now  describe  the  manner  of  death  that  ensues 
from  blows  inflicted  on  the  brain.  This  way  of  killing  is 
said  to  accelerate  the  death  of  the  animal.  But  we  see  the 
terrible  effect  it  has  on  the  poor  animal ;  just  as  if  it  were 
struck  by  thunderbolts  and  flashes  of  lightning.  The  but- 
cher comes  with  his  axe  in  his  hand,  and  strikes  the  head 
of  the  poor  animal,  not  once,  but  many  times.  For  it  is 
not  possible  to  hit.  at  one  blow,  the  exact  place  where  a 
blow  kills  the  animal  instantly.  Wherefore  the  butcher 
strikes  the  animal  many  times,  until  he  breaks  the  skull  and 
tears  the  brain.  (But  do  not  forget  that,  although  every 
blow  on  the  head,  inflicted  with  the  intention  to  kill  the  an- 
imal, may  be  considered  like  sure  half  death,  still  the  animal 
does  not  fully  die  before  the  brain  is  torn  or  destroyed. 
And  even  if  the  butcher  deals  forty  blows  on  the  head  of 
the  animal  and  goes  on  striking  it,  he  only  makes  the  ani- 
mal sick,  but  he  will  not  kill  it.  until  he  tears  the  brain.) 
And  now,  kind  reader,  see  with  your  own  eyes  and  judge  with 
your  own  reason,  and  you  will  be  convinced  that  there  can- 
not be  a  more  painful  and  cruel  death  than  that  which  en- 
sues from  blows  dealt  on  the  head.  For,  at  the  very  mo- 
ment that  the  skull  is  broken  by  a  blow,  terror  and  tremb- 
ling seize  the  whole  body,  all  the  members,  and  every  vein; 
and  all  the  blood  and  every  member  and  every  vein  are 
attacked  by  cramps.  In  consequence  of  which,  all  the 
members  instantly  get  crooked  and  bent.  Can  we  think 
of  any  more  painful  or  more  sickening  kind  of  death?  Must 
our  heart  not  be  filled  with  compassion  on  seeing  such  suf- 


28 

fering?  But  know  also,  that  as  long  as  the  animal  is 
seized  by  cramps  and  its  members  are  bent,  it  still  is  alive. 
But  it  suffers  the  most  terrible,  indescribable  pain,  the  pro- 
cess of  breathing  ceases  immediately  and  the  excrement 
comes  out  through  the  nostrils.  All  this  being  the  case, 
let  physicians  tell  us  if  such  an  animal  dies  in  immediate 
consequence  of  the  blows  it  received,  or  if  it  does  not  die 
of  two  very  malignant  diseases :  of  cholera  and  apoplexy, 
which  have  been  brought  on  by  the  blows  and  which  end 
the  animals  life  by  cramps.  The  proof  of  our  assertion  is, 
that  if  the  region  of  the  heart  of  such  an  animal  is  cut, 
blood  flows  out,  black  like  pitch  and  putrid,  as  is  the  case 
with  animals  that  die  by  cholera  or  apoplexy,  without  any 
blows  having  been  inflicted  on  the  head,  but  only  by  the 
mere  disease.  For  the  cramps,  of  which  everybody  is 
afraid,  do  not  leave  the  animal,  until  it  is  fully  dead.  God 
protect  us  from  those  diseases — of  apoplexy  and  cramps, 
and  from  eating  flesh  of  an  animal  that  was  sick  of  such 
diseases.* 

But  as  long  as  the  animal  is  attacked  by  those  two  dis- 
eases (cholera  and  cramps),  life  is  not  extinct,  although  the 
animal  lies  motionless.  The  cause  of  that  want  of  motion 
of  the  animal  is,  that  the  pain  from  which  the  animal  suf- 
fers, when  it  is  attacked  by  those  two  diseases,  in  conse- 
quence of  blows  dealt  on  its  head,  is  so  severe,  that  we  can- 
not imagine  any  pain,  whatever  that  equals  it  in  intensity. 
And  how  could  we  think  of  any  pain  equally  violent  and 
annihilating?  Has  not  the  brain,  the  seat  of  all  life,  been 
hammered  down  and  destroyed,  and  has  not  the  heart  also 
been  consumed  by  fire  through  the  decomposition  of  its 


*  This  our  explanation  may  also  account  for  the  extraordinary  fact, 
which  often  repeated  itself  in  the  history  of  the  middle  ages,  and  which 
was  the  cause  of  manyjpersecutions,  expulsions,  and  murders  of  Israel- 
ites. I  mean  the  strange  fact,  that  often,  when  pestilence  raged  and 
killed  hundreds  and  thousands  of  human  beings,  very  few  Israelites 
fell  as  victims  to  the  scourge.  The  Christians,  who  could  not  find  any 
good  reason  for  this  startling  anomaly,  accused  the  Israelites  of  having 
thrown  poison  into  the  wells  which  furnished  drinking  water  to  the 
communities,  and  committed  the  excesses  and  cruelties  just  men- 
tioned. 


blood,  called  in  German,  "Schwarzer  Brand,"  black  mortifica- 
tion? Woe  to  him  who  eats  of  such  meat,  viz.,  of  meat  of 
an  animal  that  has  been  killed  by  apoplexy  and  cholera. 
But  we  repeat  it :  the  animal  dies  not  directly  by  the  blows 
dealt  on  its  head,  but  by  the  two  severe  diseases,  cholera 
and  apoplexy,  brought  on  by  those  blows.  On  this  very 
account,  the  flesh  of  the  animal  has  certainly  become  dis- 
eased, because  blood  has  been  left  in  it  impregnated  by 
those  diseases.  For  there  is  no  difference  whether  death 
ensues  in  consequence  of  blows  dealt  on  the  head,  which 
surely  brought  on  those  two  diseases  of  apoplexy  and 
cramps :  or  if  those  diseases  came  of  themselves,  without 
any  blows,  and  killed  the  animal. 

For  the  correctness  of  this  assertion,  we  have  the  follow- 
ing proofs: 

1.  The  blood  becomes  dark  like  pitch  and  rotten,  in  both 
ways  of  death,  that  is,  both  if  the  animal  is  struck  by  man 
with  an  axe,  or  if  severe  sickness  brings  on  such  a  state. 

2.  Cramps  set  in,  as  it  is  the  case  with  cholera. 

3.  The  animal  ceases  to  breathe. 

4.  All  this  is  different  with  Shechitah.     For  no  such  fear- 
ful and  terrible  sights  are  produced  by  Shechitah.     For  as 
soon  as  the  windpipe  and  gullet  are  cut,  the  blood  pour-; 
over  the  cut  and  pain  ceases.     The  blood,  which  is  life,  de- 
parts gradually,  and  when  it  has  entirely  departed,  the  ani- 
mal dies,  not  by  sickness,  but  because  the  essential  of  life, 
blood,  is  wanting. 

The  flesh  of  an  animal  that  died  by  being  struck  on  the 
head  is  also  heavier  than  the  flesh  of  an  animal  killed  bv 
Shechitah.  For  in  the  former  case  the  blood  has  been  ab- 
sorbed by  the  members.  But  the  soul,  viz.,  the  blood,  must 
not  be  eaten  with  the  flesh. 

5.  The  meat  of  an  animal  killed  by  blows  putrefies,  in 
hot  weather,  faster  than  the  meat  of  an  animal  that  has  been 
killed  by  Shechitah,  because  the  rotten  and  black  blood  has 
been  absorbed  by  the  meat. 

Sometimes  coagulated  blood  is  found  on  the  ribs  of  an 


30 

animal  killed  by  blows,  inside,  near  the  spine,  which  can- 
not be  removed  by  washing. 

By  all  this  it  is  easy  to  see  the  difference  between  an  ani- 
mal killed  by  Shechitah  and  one  killed  by  blows.  The  meat 
of  the  latter  animal  is  not  clean,  and  is  unfit  food  for  a  good 
man  of  pure  thought,  as  I  shall  explain  still  more  explicitly. 
Maimonides  also  writes :  "It  lies  in  the  nature  of  blood  to 
produce  cruel  and  detestable  habits  in  those  that  eat  it.  The 
system  acquires  those  habits  in  a  way  that  they  will  also 
be  inherited  by  the  descendants  of  the  person  who  consumes 
the  blood." 

But  Gentiles  do  not  kill  all  animals  by  blows  on  the  head. 
For  sheep  and  calves  are  killed  by  piercing.  Why  are  now, 
we  ask,  small  animals,  as  sheep  and  calves,  different  from 
large  animals,  as  oxen  and  cows?  Why  are  blows  preferable 
for  large  animals,  and  why  is  piercing  preferable  for  small  ani- 
mals? 

But  in  both  ways  of  killing,  the  animal  dies  without  its 
head,  body,  heart,  and  intestines  being  separated.  During 
the  entire  struggle  of  death,  full  communication  and  sym- 
pathy exist  between  all  these  vital  parts  of  the  animal,  and 
they  all  perish  simultaneously. 

Now,  dear  reader,  ponder  over  my  words,  and  thou  wilt 
find  they  are  correct  and  true,  and  lovers  of  truth  will  ap- 
prove of  them.  Thou  wilt  find  that  the  ordinances  for  Shech- 
itah are  a  divine  institution,  and  that  God's  mercy  extends 
unto  all  His  creatures,  even  to  animals  destined  for  the  .food 
of  man.  Thou  wilt  also  see  that  Shechitah  is  the  best  and 
most  preferable  way  of  killing  and  of  preparing  meat  for 
food,  without  the  least  doubt,  as  thou  wilt  find  in  my  book 
"Liviath  Chen,"  which  I  am  presenting  here  to  thee. 

To  sum  up  the  foregoing,  I  say : 

We  have  seen  that  neither  striking  on  the  head  nor  Shech- 
itah kills  an  animal.  But  by  blows  a  disease  is  brought  on 
that  kills  the  animal,  and  by  Shechitah  the  bodies  are  separ- 
ated. The  body  is  not  killed  directly  by  Shechitah,  but  a 
gate  is  opened  for  the  arteries  and  veins  to  let  the  life-blood 
flow  out,  so  that  the  flesh  is  left  without  life.  But  as  long 


31 

as  the  struggles  of  death  last,  the  animal  is  considered  to 
be  alive,  according  to  Jewish  law. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  question  which  high-minded  and 
high-standing  Gentiles  asked.  They  asked  that  question 
from  pure  motives,  viz.,  to  promote  the  cause  of  humanity 
as  far  as  possible,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  annoying  the 
Israelites. 

The  interrogators  of  that  question  are  members  of  the 
Society  for  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  and  they  pro- 
secute any  one  and  every  one  whom  they  apprehend  in  hav- 
ing committed  any  cruel  act  towards  an  animal.  If  the 
person  accused  is  convicted  by  the  court,  he  is  punished, 
in  order  to  prevent  him  and  others  from  acting  so  cruelly 
in  future. 

The  same  question  about  the  Shechitah  has  also  been 
asked  in  other  countries,  and  only  by  making  the  greatest 
efforts  the  Israelites  succeeded  in  inducing  the  authorities 
to  rely  on  the  assurance  of  medical  experts,  who  said  that 
Shechitah  is  not  such  a  painful  and  terrible  death  after  all. 
In  this  way  Shechitah  has  been  tolerated,  but  has  by  no 
means  been  considered  preferable  to  all  other  modes  of 
killing. 

But  the  Author  Sforno  is  fully  correct  when  he  says  that 
direct  proofs  for  the  necessity  of  Shechitah  have  to  be  of- 
fered by  the  Israelites.  For  why  should  the  Gentiles  say 
that  Jewish  customs  are  cruel,  and  Jewish  laws  ought  to  be 
abolished?  But  it  is  impossible  to  do  away  with  Shechitah 
entirely,  because  many  thousands  and  myriads  of  Israelites 
would  prefer  death  to  defiling  their  body  and  soul  by  eat- 
ing meat  of  animals  not  killed  in  the  Jewish  way.  And  since 
the  Israelites  are  a  stubborn  people,  it  is  best  to  tolerate 
their  custom  and  rather  allow  the  animals  to  be  killed  in  the 
Jewish  way,  even  if  the  animals  suffer  more  pain  in  this  way, 
than  to  be  the  cause  of  the  death  of  many  Israelites.  Gentiles 
further  say,  Shechitah  ought  to  be  tolerated  so  much  the 
more,  since  physicians  say  that  Shechitah  is  not  such  a  painful 
and  cruel  death  after  all. 

But  this  kindness-  of  the  Gentiles  is  not  creditable  to  the 


32 

Israelites.     For  Israelites  ought  to  make  Gentiles  acquainted 
with  the  essence  and  nature  of  Shechitah. 

The  Torah  already  enjoins  on  us  (Deut.  iv.  6) :  "And  you 
shall  observe  and  do  (it) ;  for  it  is  your  wisdom  and  under- 
standing in  the  eyes  of  the  nations."  The  meaning  of  this 
biblical  verse  is :  If  you  observe  a  divine  command  quite 
strictly  and  closely  in  all  its  particulars,  you  will  know  how 
to  refute  all  objections  that  can  be  raised  against  that  divine 
command,  and  you  will  be  able  to  give  good  reasons  for  its 
observation. 

But  who  can  be  expected  to  understand  and  explain  all 
particulars  of  Shechitah  more  thoroughly  than  the  Shochet 
himself? 

I  have  been  now  officiating  as  Shochet  over  thirty  years. 
I  have  had  great  experience  in  my  profession,  have  taught 
many  pupils  the  art  of  Shechitah,  and  have  taken  pains  to 
investigate  every  matter  as  closely  as  possible.  And  I  am 
fully  convinced  that  the  way  of  killing  practiced  by  non-Is- 
raelitish  butchers  is  extremely  cruel  and  painful,  far  more  so 
than  Shechitah.  And  if  we  look  at  the  terrible  struggle  and 
the  contortion  of  an  animal  that  dies  in  the  cruel  way  of  hav- 
ing blows  dealt  on  its  head,  and  compare  this  way  of  dying 
with  Shechitah,  we  perceive  and  comprehend  how  exalted  is 
the  divine  command  which  ordered  Shechitah.  For  by 
Shechitah  life  departs  and  death  ensues  without  paiv.  All 
the  signs  which  I  described  above  prove  also  that  Shechitah 
prepares  and  purifies  the  meat  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be 
eaten  without  the  least  danger. 

Gentiles  ought  also  to  observe  the  command  of  Shechitah, 
and  wise  men  and  lovers  of  truth  ought  to  remind  their  chil- 
dren not  to  eat  of  any  animal  that  has  not  been  killed  by 
Shechitah,  if  the  Israelitish  religion  prescribes  Shechitah  for 
such  an  animal.  But  as  soon  as  the  meat  is  allowed  to  be 
eaten  by  the  Israelite,  it  is  also  allowed  to  Gentiles.  They 
may  then  eat  of  it  and  praise  the  Lord  and  Israel,  His  people, 
and  they  will  say :  (Deut.  iv.  6  and  8) :  "Surely  this  great 
people  is  a  wise  and  intelligent  people,  which  has  just  statutes 
and  judgments  like  all  this  law." 


33 

The  Almighty,  blessed  be  He,  who  has  created  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  world,  who  loves  all  His  creatures  and  de- 
lights in  the  prosperity  of  the  world,  desires  the  Gentiles 
also  to  enjoy  future  life,  as  I  shall  explain  yet  more  explic- 
itly. Therefore  He  commanded  us  to  try  to  understand  the 
reason  of  the  divine  commands,  so  that  we  shall  be  able  to 
explain  to  Gentiles  the  reasons  of  the  statutes  and  judg- 
ments, if  they  will  ask  us  about  them.  In  this  way  the  Gen- 
tiles will  learn  the  reason  of  the  divine  commands  and  ob- 
serve them.  They  will  thus  attain  long  life  and.  improve  their 
mind,  as  the  Bible  says :  (Deut.  iv.  i) :  "And  now,  O  Israel, 
obey  the  laws  and  judgments  which  I  teach  you  to  do,  in 
order  that  you  may  live." 

Thus  we  see  that  he  enjoys  length  of  life  who  observes 
and  performs  them.  And  just  as  well  as  the  observation  of 
the  divine  commands  secures  long  life,  just  so  it  removes  all 
pain  and  sickness  and  everything  that  shortens  man's  life, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  forbidden. 

The  reason  why  the  Israelites  are  called  a  wise  nation  is, 
because  they  act  for  a  laudable  purpose,  as  becomes  a  wise, 
intelligent  and  great  nation  that  tries  to  remove  every  injur- 
ious influence,  as  it  is  said  in  the  Bible  (Exod.  xv.  26) :  "And 
it  will  be,  if  thou  wilt  diligently  listen  to  the  voice  of  the  Lord 
thy  God,  wilt  do  what  is  right  in  His  eyes,  give  ear  to  His 
commands  and  observe  all  His  statutes,  that  I  shall  not 
bring  over  thee  any  disease  which  I  brought  over  Egypt,  for 
I  am  thy  physician."  And  even  if  the  Gentiles  will  act  in 
this  way,  not  because  God  commanded  it,  but  for  some  other 
motive,  it  still  will  have  those  beneficial  consequences  for 
them.  For  the  Talmud  teaches,  that  if  any  one  performs  a 
good  action,  even  without  pure  unselfish  motives  at  first, 
he  will,  in  course  of  time,  do  that  action  from  pure,  disinter- 
ested motives. 

The  Torah  warns  us  also  not  to  hate  Gentiles,  not  even 
idolaters,  as  it  says  (Deut.  xxiii.  8) :  "Thou  shalt  not  abhor 
the  Edomite,  for  he  is  thy  brother.  Thou  shalt  not  abhor 
the  Egyptian,  for  thou  wast  a  stranger  in  his  land." 

The  Torah  also  warns  us  not  to  give  any  man  any  danger- 


34 

ous  or  injurious  thing  by  which  his  life  can  be  endangered 
or  he  could  be  hurt.  So  -the  Bible  says  (Exod.  xxii.  30) : 
"Neither  shall  you  eat  flesh  that  is  torn  of  beasts  in  the  field. 
Ye  shall  cast  it  to  the  dogs." 

But  in  Deut.  xiv.  21,  the  Bible  admonishes  us:  Ye  shall 
not  eat  of  any  thing  that  dieth  of  itself;  thou  shalt  give  it 
unto  the  stranger  that  is  in  thy  gates,  that  he  may  eat  it ;  or 
thou  mayest  sell  it  unto  an  alien,  for  thou  art  a  holy  people 
unto  the  Lord  thy  God. 

In  order  to  understand  this  apparent  incongruity,  that  in 
Deuteronomy  the  Bible  allows  us  to  give  forbidden  meat  to 
the  stranger  and  alien,  and  in  Exodus  the  Bible  commands 
us  to  cast  forbidden  meat  to  the  dogs,  we  must  not  forget 
that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  Terephah  and  Ne- 
belah.  By  Terephah  is  meant  an  animal  that  has  been  torn 
or  mortally  wounded  by  a  beast  of  prey.  Such  an  animal 
dies  of  poison,  by  which  the  attacking  animal  of  prey  in- 
fected its  system.  For  thus  the  Bible  says:  "And  flesh  in 
the  field  that  is  torn,"  that  means,  that  has  been  torn  or 
wounded  by  a  beast  of  prey.  Such  an  animal  we  must  not 
even  give  to  a  Gentile,  but  cast  it  to  the  dogs,  because  it  is 
more  strictly  forbidden  to  us  to  eat  anything  injurious  to 
health  than  to  eat  anything  unclean  on  merely  religious 
grounds. 

The  Torah  teaches  us  at  the  same  time  that  dogs  are 
beasts  of  prey  which  are  not  injured  by  the  poison  of  an- 
other beast  of  prey,  wherefore  dogs  may  eat  of  an  animal 
that  has  been  wounded  or  slain  by  another. 

But  in  Deuteronomy  the  Torah  speaks  of  Nebelah,  and 
not  of  Terephah ;  and  whereas  there  are  many  animals  that 
die  a  natural  death,  and  are  fit  for  human  food,  therefore  the 
Torah  commands  us:  Ye  shall  not  eat  any  animal  that  has 
died  of  itself,  even  if  it  is  fit  to  be  eaten,  as,  for  instance,  if 
during  Shechitah  or  the  act  of  killing  it  has  become  unfit 
for  the  use  of  an  Israelite. 

Now  the  meat  of  such  an  animal  thou  mayest  give  to  the 
stranger  within  thy  gates  that  he  may  eat  it,  if  he  chooses 
But  to  the  Israelite  such  meat  is  forbidden,  as  the  Bible  says 


35 

(Deuteronomy  xiv.  2,  3) :  "For  thou  art  an  holy  people  un- 
to  the  Lord  thy  God,  and  the  Lord  hath  chosen  thee  to  b« 
a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above  all  the  nations  that  arc 
upon  the  earth.  Thou  shalt  not  eat  any  abominable  thing," 
even  if  it  is  fit  to  be  eaten. 

See  also  Aben  Esra,  Exodus  xxii.,  who  quotes  the  opin 
ion  of  Rabbi  Moses  Cohen,  that  God  forbade  us  to  give  a 
Gentile  anything  injurious  to  health  or  dangerous  to  the 
system,  because  we  are  enjoined  more  strictly  to  abstain  from 
eating  anything  injurious  to  health  than  from  eating  any- 
thing forbidden  by  the  statutes  of  the  Israelitish  religion. 

So  the  Bible  forbade  also  the  stranger  to  eat  blood,  al- 
though he  is  allowed  to  eat  of  an  animal  that  died  of  itself. 
For  in  reference  to  Nebelah  (an  animal  that  died  of  itself) 
the  Bible  says :  "To  the  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gates 
thou  mayest  give  it,  that  he  may  eat  it." 

But  eating  blood  is  forbidden  also  to  the  stranger,  for 
thus  it  says  (Lev.  xvii.  10) :  "And  any  one  of  the  house  of 
Israel  or  of  the  strangers  who  sojourn  among  them,  who  eats 
any  blood,  I  will  even  set  my  face  against  that  soul  that  eat- 
eth  blood,  and  will  cut  him  off  from  among  his  people." 

We  find  the  reason  for  this  in  Moreh.  For  Maimonides 
writes  in  Moreh  that  blood  creates  very  cruel  inclinations 
in  the  system,  which  not  only  become  inseparable  from  the 
system,  but  which  will  also  be  communicated  to  children 
and  grandchildren. 

From  this  we  see  that  God  desires  the  welfare  of  His 
creatures,  that  He  has  pity  on  them,  and  wants  them  to  pros- 
per and  improve  their  minds  by  virtuous  living.  Compare 
Maimonides'  letter  which  he  sent  to  Alexandria  to  the  great 
Rabbi  Chisdai.  the  Levite  and  Portuguese.  He  writes: 
"Concerning  thy  question  about  the  Gentiles,  thou  must 
know  that  all  God  desires  is  a  good  heart.  Therefore  the 
Rabbins  said :  'Pious  Gentiles  are  admitted  into  paradise, 
if  they  acquired  the  necessary  knowledge  of  the  existence 
and  properties  of  the  Creator,  and  if  they  improved  their 
minds  by  good  habits";  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  every 
one  who  ennobled  his  mind  by  good  habits,  and  the  proper 


36 

knowledge  of  and  belief  in  the  Creator,  blessed  be  He,  will 
inherit  the  future  world  or  the  paradise.  Therefore  the 
truly  wise  men,  our  teachers,  said,  'Even  a  non-Israelite, 
who  sitidies  the  law  of  Moses,  our  teacher,  is  equal  to  the 
High-priest/ "  So  Yalkut  Shimeoni  says:  "The  words, 
Thy  priests  shall  put  on  righteousness,'  allude  to  pious  Gen- 
tiles." 

What  we  have  said  until  now  is  fully  sufficient  to  show  us 
that  God  is  a  merciful  Father,  who  has  compassion  on  His 
creatures,  and  loves  all  men,  both  rich  and  poor.  He  has 
given  us  statutes  and  judgments,  and  any  one  who  chooses 
may  find  shelter  in  them,  and  observe  and  perform  them,  in 
order  that  he,  as  well  as  we,  may  enjoy  the  felicity  of  doing 
what  is  right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord. 

God  commanded  us  also  to  make  known  and  explain  the 
statutes  and  judgments  of  the  Lord  to  all  inquirers,  even  if 
they  should  observe  them  for  some  other  reason  than  the 
one  of  obeying  the  Lord's  command,  in  order  that  they  also 
may  enjoy  all  the  good  that  follows  from  the  observation  of 
the  commands  of  the  Lord. 

We  owe  this  duty  of  explaining  the  Lord's  commands  so 
much  the  more  to  the  nations  of  the  present  day,  among 
whom  we  live,  who  are  full  of  wisdom  ^and  knowledge,  and 
are  kindly  disposed  towards  us  with  all  their  heart  and  soul. 
Therefore  it  is  our  duty  to  answer  their  questions  correctly, 
and  give  them  the  desired  information,  in  order  that  they 
also  will  avoid  every  injurious  thing,  and  will  save  their  bodv 
and  soul,  and  the  bodies  and  souls  of  their  children  after 
them,  so  that  their  good  inclinations  and  propensities  will 
not  be  marred  by  any  bad  influence. 

For  we  find  that  in  many  ways  parents  cause  their  chil- 
dren to  become  depraved ;  but  in  all  these  cases,  not  only 
the  perpetrators  of  the  bad  actions  ought  to  be  punished, 
but  also  they  who  caused  them  to  act  in  their  bad  way  ought 
to  be  held  accountable.  And  only  in  a  few  rare  cases  does 
it  occur  that  children  leave  the  ways  of  their  wicked  parents, 
and  become  good  and  virtuous.  But  if  wicked  parents  use 
their  influence  with  their  children,  so  that  the  latter  imitate 


37 


the  former's  ways,  no  improvement  of  the  children  can  be 
expected  by  any  means. 

In  all  these  cases,  Providence  will  punish  parents  for  t 
injurious   influence   on   their   children,   although   no  human 
judge  can  exercise  his  authority  and  punish  such  an  offence. 

For  all  these  reasons  I  think  that  if  any  Israelite  is  re- 
quested to  explain  any  topic  of  the  holy  law,  and  he  is  able 
to  do  so  and  can  give  a  good  reason  for  the  existence  of 
that  law,  it  is  his  sacred  duty  to  give  the  inquirer  all  informa- 
tion and  instruction  he  is  able  to  give.  Thus  the  Bible  says 
(Deut.  xxxi.  19) :  "Put  it  in  their  mouth,"  so  that  the  matter 
will  be  quite  plain  and  clear  to  them.  By  this  injunction, 
too,  we  can  see  the  mercy  of  the  Lord  toward  His  creatures. 

Now  let  us  investigate  the  four  kingdoms  of  natural  bod- 
ies, their  nourishment,  and  the  accidents  to  which  they  are 
subject ;  from  the  different  kinds  of  plants  and  trees  up  to 
the  most  elevated  of  all  creatures — man. 

Thy  works  are  wonderful,  O  Lord!  Thy  thoughts  are 
very  deep.  Thou  hast  composed  Thy  world  for  four  differ- 
ent kingdoms,  of  minerals,  plants,  animals,  and  man. 

God  furnishes  food  for  all  these  beings  which  He  has  cre- 
ated and  which  He  supports  by  His  goodness,  kindness,  and 
mercy,  and  He  furnishes  that  food  according  to  the  nature 
and  constitution  of  these  creatures,  may  they  be  plants,  ani- 
mals, or  man.  f 

That  being  is  the  strongest  and  'healthiest  that  finds  r 
food  readv  at  all  times,  without  being  in  need  of  preparing 
that  food  at  all.  Such  a  being  is  not  very  apt  to  suffer  from 
external  influences.  But  less  strong  is  that  being  whose 
food  needs  preparation.  And  the  more  preparation  its  food 
needs,  the  weaker  the  being  is,  and  such  a  being  is  exposed 
to  external  influences,  and  is  injured  by  them  if  it  is  not' 
very  careful. 

For  instance,  earth,  water,  and  air  are  the  nourishment 
of  plants  and  trees,  and  they  produce  taste  and  odor  in  them. 
But  these  trees  often  are  extraordinarily  high,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  proud  cedar ;  they  are  strong  and  powerful,  they 
yield  their  fruit  in  due  season,  and  their  years  are  almost 


38 

numberless.  Very  seldom  any  accident  befalls  them,  and 
rarely  do  they  suffer  any  change.  The  reason  is,  these  trees 
find  their  food  always  ready  and  prepared,  and  they  do  not 
suffer  any  injury,  as  long  as  their  nourishment  does  not  de- 
teriorate and  is  not  changed. 

This  is  also  the  case  with  all  plants  of  the  field.  As  long 
as  their  food  does  not  undergo  any  change,  they  retain  their 
former  strength. 

Higher  in  the  order  of  natural  beings  than  plants  are  ani- 
mals. There  is  a  great  variety  of  these  latter,  and  they  an- 
in  need  of  many  different  kinds  of  food. 

Some  kinds  of  animals  find  their  food  ready  for  them  at 
all  times,  others  do  not  find  it  ready,  since  it  needs  prepara- 
tion. 

But  every  species  of  animals  whose  food  needs  prepara- 
tion is  far  more  exposed  to  the  influence  of  accidents,  and 
is  far  more  likely  to  be  injured,  than  those  species  of  animals 
that  find  their  food  ready  for  them  without  its  being  in  need 
of  much  preparation. 

Some  species  of  animals  live  on  vegetables,  and  eat  tl.em 
just  as  they  find  them;  the  food  of  other  species  must  be 
prepared ;  some  again  subsist  on  other  animals  for  their 
food.  And  the  Creator  has  endowed  every  species  of  ani- 
mals with  the  proper  instinct  that  enables  it  to  know  and  to 
prepare  its  right  food,  just  as  it  is  fit  for  its  system,  and  just 
as  its  constitution  demands  it. 

For  instance,  the  serpent  has  been  cursed  that  it  has  to 
eat  dust  all  the  days  of  its  life,  or  in  other  words,  that  its 
food  tastes  like  earth.  Therefore  the  Creator  has  supplied 
it  with  poison  that  burns  everything  to  earth,  so  that  it  tastes 
like  earth.  For  this  reason  it  finds  its  food  ready  and  pre- 
pared at  all  times. 

Fishes  have  been  blessed  with  water  which  is  always 
ready  for  them  and  in  which  they  live. 

The  hog's  nature  is  that  everything  serves  for  its  food. 
And  by  the  bad  smell  in  its  mouth  and  by  its  crooked  teeth 
it  causes  the  food  to  rot.  In  this  way,  if  any  poison  is  found 
in  its  food,  it  is  neutralized  and  becomes  harmless.  There- 


39 

fore  every  kind  of  food  is  fit  for  the  hog,  with  the  exception 
of  powerful  mortal  poisons  which  will  also  kill  it.  But  any 
poisonous  matter  that  is  found  in  herbs  or  any  decayed  food 
is  all  digested  in  its  mouth  and  by  its  tongue  and  crooked 
teeth  that  cause  the  food  to  putrefy.  It  also  has  a  stom- 
ach that  receives  everything.  Wherefore  our  Rabbins  say 
(Tract  Sabbath  77,  2) :  "Three  animals  gain  strength  by 
becoming  old  :  the  snake,  the  fish,  and  the  hog."  Our  Rab- 
bins further  said  (Tract  Sabbath  77,  2) :  "There  is  no  ani- 
mal richer  than  the  hog,"  because  it  can  live  on  any  kind 
of  food. 

The  atmosphere  that  surrounds  us  very  often  varies. 
Sometimes  it  is  pure  and  clear,  and  sometimes  it  is  thick, 
heavy,  and  impure.  Now  clear,  pure  air  is  advantageous 
to  man.  In  such  air  man  feels  well  and  comfortable,  and 
it  affords  him  pleasure  to  inhale  it. 

But  it  is  just  the  contrary  with  pigs.  If  the  air  is  pure, 
pigs  hunt  up  dung-hills  to  rest  there.  On  the  other  hand, 
on  a  rainy  day,  when  the  air  is  moist  and  impure,  pigs  run 
about  cheerful,  but  man  feels  heaviness  in  his  system  and 
has  a  desire  to  lie  down,  as  we  all  know.  The  reason  of 
this  is,  because  man  and  hog  subsist  on  all  kinds  of  food, 
which  are  fit  to  be  eaten.  But  while  human  food  requires 
cleanness  in  its  preparation,  in  order  to  be  fit  to  be  eaten, 
the  hog  wants  putrid  food  and  likes  to  lie  in  dunghills.  If 
any  poisonous  matter  is  contained  in  the  air,  it  kills  both 
man  and  hog. 

Now  let  us  examine  the  two  classes  of  animals  that  live 
on  vegetables  and  not  on  flesh,  or  that  are  herbivorous  and 
not  carnivorous,  viz.,  those  that  dhew  the  cud  and  have  a 
divided  hoof. 

There  are  two  classes  of  them.  The  first  class  includes 
domestic  animals  that  have  been  trained  by  man,  and  the 
second  class,  wild  animals  that  have  not  been  subdued  un- 
der the  rule  of  man.  They  roam  about  free  in  fields  and 
deserts,  where  no  man  lives,  and  they  live  on  herbs  and 
grass  of  the  field  which  are  both  pleasant  and  wholesome 
to  them.  They  enjoy  the  best  health,  as,  for  instance,  the 


40 

swift  hind,  the  fleet  stag.  They  obtain  old  age  without 
being  troubled  much  by  sickness  or  accident,  for  these  very 
seldom  befall  them. 

But  the  other  class  has  been  subdued  by  man,  viz.,  the 
domestic  animals.  They  are  ruled  by  man,  and  are  made 
to  work  in  the  field  or  to  carry  burdens  just  according1  to 
the  pleasure  of  their  master.  They  also  look  up  to  their 
master  to  have  all  their  wants  satisfied  by  him.  For  it  is 
he  w<ho  cares  for  their  eating  and  drinking;  it  is  he  who 
secures  to  them  a  place  where  they  can  rest  and  sleep. 

These  domestic  animals  are  subject  to  many  bad  diseases 
and  accidents  which  visit  and  often  detroy  them.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is :  domestic  animals  are  fed  by  man  even 
against  their  will.  The  animal  has  not  its  own  choice  in 
the  selection  of  its  food,  and  it  often  has  to  eat  what  is  not 
pleasant  or  wholesome  to  it.  Sometimes  it  eats  much, 
sometimes  little ;  sometimes  it  can  rest,  at  other  times  it 
has  to  walk  or  to  run,  although  tired  and  faint.  In  this 
way  the  system  of  these  animals  is  ruined.  Therefore  thev 
fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  and  other 
injurious  influences,  and  therefore  a  thousand  times  more 
domestic  than  wild  animals  die  of  sickness. 

•We  shall  now  rexamine  those  animals  that  walk  on  their 
paws,  and  attack  and  devour  their  ^prey  alive,  so  as  to  use 
it  for  food.  But  it  is  greatly  astonishing  that  the  flesh  of 
an  animal  devoured  in  this  way  should  not  ruin  the  system 
of  the  devouring  animal,  so  that  it  is  suffocated  and  dies, 
while  the  flesh  oi  the  devqured  animal  is  still  between  the 
devourer's  .teeth.  .For  it  is  universally  known  that  God 
has  endowed  .every  animal,'  from  its  birth,  with  the  sense 
of  shielding  itself  against  death,  and  of  fleeing  from  danger. 
£t  ;a.lso  know^  the  animals  that  tear  and  lacerate  it,  and  re- 
cognizes .them  frqm  afar.  It  is  then  in  the  .very  greatest 
fear  and  agqny  of  death.  Now,  in  consequence  of  the 
deadly  'fear  that  seizes  .the  animal,  when  it  falls  into  the 
.power  of  the  .enemy  and  destroyer,  the  whole  system  of  the 
Attacked  animal,  ^11  ;}ts  .rnerqbers,  ve,ins,  its  .muscles,  .and 
fits  ,b.JoQd  .£r£  ^seized  by  cholera.  And  surely  those  who  eat 


41 

such  flesh  do  not  escape  injury.  But  to  protect  the  ani- 
mal of  prey  from  injury,  the  Creator  has  provided  it  with 
crooked  teeth,  and  with  pointed  and  crooked  claws,  both 
full  of  poison.  AVhen  now  the  beast  of  prey  lacerates  an 
animal,  it  throws  poison  into  it,  and  that  poison  burns  or 
consumes  all  the  sickness  which  overcame  the  animal  on 
account  of  its  deadly  fear  at  the  time  of  its  death.  In  this 
way  the  flesh  of  the  devoured  animal  is  purified  again,  and 
it  not  only  becomes  fit  to  be  eaten,  but  it  also  enters  the 
devouring  animal  pleasant  like  water,  and  it  is  strength- 
ening to  its  bones  like  oil. 

Now,  such  meat,  that  is,  the  flesh  of  an  animal  lacerated 
by  an  animal  of  prey,  the  Torah  has  forbidden  us  to  sell 
or  to  give  to  any  human  being.  We  have  to  throw  it  be- 
fore the  dogs,  because  dogs  also  are  animals  of  prey,  and 
therefore  do  not  derive  any  injury  from  eating  the  flesh  of 
such  an  animal.  God  rewarded  dogs  in  this  way  quite  ap- 
propriately. They  did  not  bark  at  the  Israelites,  although 
it'  lies  in  the  nature  of  dogs  to  bark  in  consequence  of  their 
•poisonous  anger  that  suspects  strangers.  Therefore,  *io 
poison  of  other  animals  of  prey  injures  them. 

We  shall  speak  now  of  the  food  of  the  foremost  and  most 
•elevated  of  all  creatures — man.  All  food  that  is  not  well 
^prepared  is  distasteful  to  him,  and  endangers  "his  health 
and  life  greatly. 

I  shall  first  describe  that  human  food  which  is  taken 
from  the  vegetable  -kingdom.  'Here  man  has  to  perform 
a  great  many  labors  before  he  will  obtain  'bread  that  is  »fit 
for  him  to  eat.  He  has  to  plough,  to  sow,  and  reap  the 
field.  He  has  then  to  grind  the  grain,  to  knead  the  flour, 
and  bake  the  dough  to  bread. 

'But  besides  the  operations  mentioned,  -there  are  other 
hard  and  difficult  ones  to  be  performed,  before  the  grain 
is  fit  to  be  ground,  and  to  be  then  turned  into  bread  fit  >to 
be  eaten  by  man. 

We  must  not  forget  that  all  those  'labors  and  troubles 
are  essentially  necessary.  Without  them  grain  or  plants 
are  not  only  not  nourishing,  but  even  greatly  endangering 


42 

human  health  and  life.  For  many  severe  diseases  arise 
from  eating  bread,  if  the  grain,  out  of  which  it  has  been 
made,  has  not  been  cleaned,  because  in  this  way  poisonous 
flowers  and  seeds  that  are  injurious  to  human  health  are 
mixed  with  the  grain,  although  all  other  animals  eat  such 
a  mixture  and  are  nourished  by  it,  just  as  if  it  were  the 
greatest  delicacy. 

But  it  is  altogether  different  with  the  food  of  man — the 
foremost  of  all  creatures.  He  has  to  be  very  careful  and 
cautious  and  he  has  to  examine  everything  he  eats  very 
closely,  as  the  wise  king  said  (Prov.  xxv.  30  and  31)  :  "I 
passed  by  the  field  of  the  slothful  and  by  the  vineyard  of 
the  man  void  of  understanding,  and  lo,  it  was  all  grown 
over  with  thorns,  and  nettles  had  covered  the  face  there- 
of, etc." 

The  wise  king  is  not  going  to  describe  to  us  the  injury 
that  will  be  caused  to  the  field  by  its  being  allowed  to  be 
filled  with  thorns  and  nettles ;  but  he  is  depicting  to  us 
the  damaging  influence  which  the  eating  of  flour,  made  of 
grain  that  is  mixed  with  thorns  and  poisonous  plants,  en- 
tails on  the  health  of  man  eating  it.  For  it  is  extremely 
necessary  to  glean  carefully  out  of  grain  all  bitter  and  poi- 
sonous kernels  that  are  mixed  with  it,  or  any  grain  which 
is  not  fully  ripe.  All  these  are  injurious  to  man,  although 
they  are  not  hurtful  and  are  even  wholesome  to  animals. 

The  Torah  has  enjoined  on  us  the  duty  of  taking  care 
of  our  life  very  emphatically,  as  it  says :  "Take  the  utmost 
care  of  thy  life." 

The  wise  king  likewise  lavishes  the  greatest  praise  on 
her  who  is  careful  in  this  respect.  For  after  he  has  con- 
cluded his  encomiums  in  all. other  respects  and  after  he  has 
said  (Prov.  xx*i.  10  et  seq.) :  "Who  can  find  a  virtuous 
woman ;  her  price  is  far  above  pearls.  The  heart  of  her 
husband  trusts  safely  on  her.  She  bestows  benefits  on  him." 

What  for?  Because  (ibid.)  "She  bringeth  her  food  from 
afar,  and  giveth  meat  to  her  household.  She  looktth  well 
to  the  ways  of  her  household." 

All  this  is  the  good  which  she  has  done.     But  not  only 


43 

did  she  do  what  is  good  and  useful,  but  she  also  k^pt  back 
everything  that  is  injurious,  as  the  wise  king  says  (ibid.) : 
"And  she  eateth  not  bread  of  idleness,"  which  is  not  clean 
from  thistles :  for  grain  raised  on  the  field  of  an  idle  per- 
son is  very  dangerous,  because  bitter  grains  are  mixed  with 
it,  as  we  have  said. 

And  now  see,  although  the  wise  king  said  (Eccl.  vii. 
28) :  "One  man  among  a  thousand  have  I  found,  but  a 
woman  among  all  those  I  have  not  found,"  still  when  the 
woman  looks  well  after  the  affairs  of  the  household,  he 
ascribes  greatness  to  her  husband  and  attributes  both  to 
him  and  her  many  an  adorning  name,  as :  Virtuous  wo- 
man, a  woman  in  whom  her  husband  trusts,  one  who  does 
good,  one  who  is  like  the  merchant's  ship,  one  who  giveth 
meat  to  the  household. 

Although  it  is  the  husband's  province  to  care  for  the 
support  of  the  family,  still  the  wise  king  also  gives  the 
virtuous  woman  credit  for  giving  meat  to  the  household. 
And  so  he  continues  praising  and  glorifying  the  virtuous 
woman  who  furnishes  her  family  with  good  meat,  that  he 
says  at  last  (ibid.) :  "But  thou  excellest  them  all." 

Now,  why  is  this  extraordinary  praise? 

Because  it  is  the  part  of  the  wife  to  watch  over  the 
household  and  the  affairs  of  the  family.  The  husband  or 
the  father  of  the  family  does  not  meddle  with  culinary  af- 
fairs. He  toils  and  works  out  of  the  house  to  furnish  the 
means  for  buying  food  for  the  family.  But  the  wife  or 
the  mother  of  the  family  applies  the  money  earned  by  the 
husband  to  buying  food  and  drink,  and  to  her  the  family 
owes  its  good  health  and  its  safety  from  sickness  and  dan 
ger  by  her  excluding  from  kitchen  and  table  everything 
injurious  to  health. 

All  wise  and  experienced  women  will  give  me  credit  for 
what  I  have  said,  because  their  own  reason  will  tell  them 
that  I  have  spoken  but  the  truth.  And  when  they  will  ob- 
serve everything  to  which  I  have  drawn  their  attention, 
they  will  thank  me  for  having  enlightened  them  and 
warned  them  and  kept  them  and  their  families  back  from 


44 

danger.  In  this  way  no  harm  will  come  near  their  tents, 
but  all  will  be  well,  hale,  and  strong. 

But  let  us  now  reason  and  calculate  with  a  clear  mind. 

If  man  has  to  be  so  careful  and  cautious  in  eating  plants, 
that  he  has  to  know  which  plants  he  may  eat  and  from 
which  he  must  stay  away,  and  that  he  has  also  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  proper  mode  of  preparing  them,  that 
they  will  not  be  injurious,  but  wholesome  to  him,  how 
much  the  more  is  it  necessary  for  him  to  know  the  proper 
way  of  preparing  the  flesh  of  animals  for  his  food.  For 
animals  are  endowed  with  sensibility,  they  have  the  feel- 
ing of  fear  or  dread,  of  pain  or  ache,  of  grief  or  sorrow. 
How  much  the  more  has  man  to  know  how  to  prepare  such 
meat,  that  it  will  not  injure  him.  For  the  Creator  has  not 
provided  man  with  means  of  destroying  or  neutralizing 
the  poison  of  plants,  so  much  the  less  is  man  allowed  to 
eat  the  flesh  of  an  animal  that  has  been  seized  by  deadlv 
fear,  when  it  has  been  taken  to  the  slaughter-house.  Man 
has  no  crooked  teeth,  no  bent  claws,  and  no  poison  in  his 
mouth  and  tongue  which  could  save  him  from  the  effects 
of  the  deadlv  fear  of  such  an  animal 

This  fear  is  less  great  with  domestic  animals  that  are 
used  to  the  society  of  man.  But  animals  of  the  forest 
are  seized  by  deadly  fear,  and  so  much  the  more  if  they 
are  struck  on  the  head,  until  death  ensues.  Surely  chol- 
era and  apoplexy  unite  to  bring  on  the  death  of  an  animal 
treated  in  this  way.  And  even  a  domestic  animal  is  at- 
tacked by  these  two  diseases  if  blows  are  dealt  on  its  fore  • 
head. 

We  will  now  also  illustrate  the  distinction  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  (Lev.  xi.  47 :  "And  to  distinguish  between  the 
unclean  and  the  clean,  and  between  the  animal  that  is  eat- 
en and  the  animal  that  is  not  eaten." 

In  order  to  distinguish  them  well  and  without  doubt, 
signs  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  namely :  chewing  the 
cud  and  dividing  the  hoof  into  two  are  signs  of  cleanness  r 
walking  on  its  paws  or  creeping  on  the  belly  are  signs  of 
uncleanness. 


We  have  to  know  that  every  domestic  animal  and  every 
animal  of  the  forest  that  divide  the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud, 
that  are  therefore  clean  animals,  have  no  upper  teeth  and 
are  compelled  to  lick  the  grass  and  herbs  of  the  field  with 
their  tongue,  in  order  to  eat  them.  They  do  not  bite  with 
their  teeth,  as  the  horse,  the  mule,  and  ass  do,  but  they 
lick  and  chew  a  little  with  the  teeth  of  their  lower  jaw  and 
swallow  it  into  the  rumen,  where  it  begins  to  be  digested. 
And  when  it  has  been  digested  there  a  little,  the  animal 
brings  it  up  and  chews  it  again :  it  then  swallows  it  a  sec- 
ond time  and  in  this  way  the  animal  is  fed.  The  food  is 
then  fully  digested  in  the  intestines. 

The  reason  for  this  is,  that  every  grass  and  herb  of  the 
field  has  a  strong  poisonous  juice  which  could  injure  clean 
animals  very  easily,  because  their  system  is  not  so  strong 
and  their  digestive  organs  are  not  so  powerful  as  those 
of  unclean  animals.  The  only  remedy  for  their  weakness 
is,  that  the  animal  licks  with  its  tongue  the  herbs  of  the 
field  and  swallows  them  into  the  rumen.  There  the  poi- 
sonous juice  is  digested  and  absorbed.  The  animal  then 
chews  the  cud  again.  In  this  way  the  cud  turns  into  good 
food  and  strengthens  the  animal. 

It  may  be  that  God  caused  the  poisonous  juice  of  herbs 
to  be  neutralized  in  this  way,  because  the  animals  that  eat 
them  are  destined  to  become  the  food  of  man. 

The  Torah  is  very  minute  and  exact,  concerning  the  signs 
of  clean  animals.  If  animals  lack  only  one  of  those  signs 
of  cleanness,  they  are  called  unclean,  although  they  are 
possessed  of  all  other  signs  of  clean  animals. 

Thus  the  Bible  says  (Lev.  xi.  2,  3):  "These  are  the 
beasts  which  ye  may  eat,  among  all  the  beasts  that  are  on 
earth :  Whatsoever  parteth  the  hoof  and  is  cloven-footed 
and  cheweth  the  cud  among  the  beasts,  that  may  ye  eat." 

Thus  we  see  that  all  the  signs  of  cleanness  must  be  found 
united  in  a  species  of  animals  to  make  it  clean.  And  even 
if  one  sign  of  cleanness  is  wanting  in  a  species,  it  is  un- 
clean, as  it  says  fLev.  xi.  4-8) :  "Nevertheless  these  shall 
ye  not  eat,  of  them  that  chew  the  cud  or  of  them  that 


46 

divide  the  hoof:  as  the  camel,  because  he  cheweth  the  cud, 
but  divideth  not  the  hoof,  he  is  unclean  to  you.  And  the 
coney,  because  it  cheweth  the  cud,  but  divideth  not  the 
hoof,  it  is  unclean  to  you.  And  the  hare,  because  he  chew- 
eth the  cud,  but  divideth  not  the  hoof;  he  is  unclean  to 
you.  And  the  swine,  though  it  divide  the  hoof  and  be 
cloven-footed,  yet  it  cheweth  not  the  cud;  it  is  unclean 
to  you.  Of  their  flesh  ye  shall  not  eat,  etc." 

If  we  investigate  the  material  difference  between  the  un- 
clean animals  and  the  way  of  their  taking  their  food  and 
digesting  it,  and  between  the  clean  animals  and  their  way 
of  taking  food  and  digesting  it,  we  find  that  the  flesh  of 
the  unclean  animals  is  rugged  and  it  is  plainly  seen  that 
their  life-blood  is  not  equally  mixed.  If  their  blood  gets 
hot,  it  often  exceeds  its  bounds  and  gets  fiercer  than  is 
wholesome  for  their  system.  Therefore  the  Creator  has 
provided  them  with  strong  limbs.  In  this  way  they  es- 
cape many  injuries  to  which  their  fierceness  exposes  them. 

But  unclean  animals  are  not  provided  with  members  that 
prevent  them  from  excesses.  Even  those  which  live  on 
vegetables  lack  those  members.  For  instance :  No  bile  is 
found  on  the  liver  of  a  horse  or  an  ass,  as  is  the  case  with 
clean  animals.  But  our  sages  said :  _  "The  liver  gets  angry 
and  the  bile  pours  some  liquid  or  juice  over  it,  and  the 
anger  of  the  liver  ceases." 

Although  the  function  of  the  liver  is  to  concoct  the  food, 
and  the  function  of  the  bile  is  to  instil  some  of  its  liquid 
into  the  food  to  promote  its  digestion,  still  it  also  allays 
anger. 

But  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  mule  extract  all  the  strong 
poisonous  juice,  contained  in  their  food,  from  it,  as  soon 
as  they  chew  it  with  their  teeth. 

The  greatest  difference  exists  also  in  the  excrements  of 
unclean  and  clean  animals,  so  that  farmers  do  not  find  the 
excrements  of  unclean  animals  fit  manure  for  every  kind 
of  ground. 

Now  just  as  well  as  there  is  the  greatest  difference  in 
the  excrements  of  unclean  and  clean  animals,  just  so,  to 


47 

be  sure,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  their  flesh,  and  the 
flesh  of  unclean  animals  is  surely  not  wholesome  for  the 
human  system. 

And  even  if  the  taste  of  the  flesh  of  unclean  animals  is 
pleasant,  it  has  no  good  effect  on  the  human  system,  just 
as  it  is  the  case  with  honey  which  has  a  good  taste  and 
odor,  and  still  it  is  injurious  to  the  human  system  if  a  great 
quantity  of  it  is  eaten. 

There  are  also  many  poisonous  matters  that  kill  only 
by  their  odor.  Their  smell  affords  momentary  pleasure, 
but  if  the  smell  is  received  into  the  system  for  a  longer 
time,  it  has  a  mortal  effect.  So  there  is  also  a  kind  of 
roses  found  among  flowers,  which,  as  we  know,  have  a 
fatal  effect  on  any  one  who  smells  them  very  long,  and 
still  their  odor  is  pleasant. 

Our  Rabbins  said  likewise : 

Pork  obstructs  or  stupefies  the  heart,  and  still  the  hog 
has  some  signs  of  cleanness.  I  know  also  for  certain  that 
the  highest  members  of  society,  as  princes,  abstain  from 
pork,  and  it  never  is  put  on  their  table,  because,  as  they 
say,  it  is  injurious  to  the  system. 

This  is  also  the  case  with  all  unclean  animals;  their 
flesh  is  rugged  or  an  abomination,  and  it  has  Some  qual- 
ities which  are  not  good  for  man. 

It  is  the  sign  of  uncleanness  which  shows  that  the  flesh 
of  those  animals  is  not  wholesome.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  serpents  which  have  no  feet  at  all.  They  have  poi- 
son in  their  tongue  that  burns  everything  to  earth.  Still 
snakes  themselves  eat  that  poison  without  being  injured 
by  it.  The  lion  likewise  tears  and  lacerates,  and  has  poi- 
son in  his  teeth  and  claws  which  serves  for  his  safety,  as 
we  have  said,  because  he  burns  away  by  it  the  matter  of 
the  disease  into  which  the  animal,  attacked  by  him,  has  fall- 
en in  consequence  of  its  deadly  fright.  We  thus  see  that 
the  lion  eats  true  poison  without  being  injured,  and  the 
same  is  the  case  with  all  kinds  of  unclean  animals.  They 
themselves  eat  their  own  poison,  and  consequently  their 
flesh  is  fed  by  their  poison.  This  flesh  is,  therefore,  to 


48 

be   sure,   an   abomination   for   mankind,    and    must   not    be 
eaten  by  man. 

But  it  is  altogether  different  with  clean  animals.  From 
the  very  moment  God  created  them,  He  has  not  put  any 
poison  into  their  mouth  or  their  tongue.  Nor  have  they 
any  crooked  teeth.  Yea,  they  have  no  teeth  at  all  in  their 
upper  jaw.  But  the  Creator  provided  them  with  one  safe- 
guard that  protects  them  from  poisonous  matter,  for  their 
tongue  has  a  thick  strong  skin  of  white  color,  in  order 
that  it  will  not  suffer  from  the  poisonous  juice  of  herbs. 
In  the  rumen,  then,  everything  is  decocted  and  the  poison- 
ous matter  is  absorbed.  Clean  animals  have  also  been 
created  with  bile  adhering  to  the  liver,  so  that,  if  the  ani- 
mal should  become  angry,  the  bile  will  pour  out  its  liquid, 
and  the  animal  will  become  calm. 

In  this  way  we  shall  comprehend  that  if  in  any  class  or 
species  of  an  animal  a  sign  of  uncleanliness  is  found,  that 
sign  shows  that  the  flesh  of  the  whole  class  is  an  abom- 
ination. For  this  reason,  the  Torah  specified  classes  and 
species  of  animals,  as,  the  camel,  the  coney,  the  hare,  the 
hog,  because,  as  soon  as  any  unclean  sign  is  found,  the 
whole  class  must  not  be  eaten. 

And  even  in  reference  to  clean  animals,  the  Bible  says 
(Lev.  xi.  2) :  "These  are  the  animals  which  you  may  eat," 
and  our  Rabbins  received  by  tradition  that  this  verse 
means :  An  animal  t'hat  is  fit  to  remain  alive  thou  mayesl 
eat,  but  if  it  is  not  fit  to  remain  alive,  thou  must  not  eat  it ; 
for  instance,  if  it  is  so  sick  that  it  cannot  be  cured.  In 
this  way  we  can  see  how  the  Creator  gave  us  laws  for  our 
good,  to  protect  our  life. 

I  also  say  that  my  poor  reason  tells  me,  that  man  would 
never  have  found  out  the  most  appropriate  place  for  kill- 
ing animals,  so  that  their  flesh  will  be  fit  for  human  food 
and  will  not  injure  man  at  all,  if  that  place  had  not  been 
shown  him  by  divine  grace.  But  God,  who  created  and 
formed  all  creatures,  chose  his  people  Israel  and  gave  them 
his  commandments.  For  He  alone  knows  what  is  gx>od 
for  man  and  what  His  chosen  people  shall  eat  and  prepare 


49 

in  a  way  pleasing  to  him,  as  it  says  (Deut.  xii.  20,  et  seq.) : 
"Because  thy  soul  longeth  to  eat  flesh,  thou  mayest  eat 
flesh,  whatsoever  thy  soul  lusteth  after,  then  thou  shalt  kill 
of  thy  herd  and  thy  flock,  as  I  have  commanded  thee,  and 
thou  shalt  eat  in  thy  gates  whatsoever  thy  soul  lusteth 
after."  And  there  is  no  necessity  to  reflect  about  the  mat- 
ter, as  we  read  in  Job  xxxviii.  2 :  "Who  is  this  that  dark- 
eneth  counsel  by  words  without  knowledge?  Where  wast 
thou,  when  I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth?  Declare, 
if  thou  hast  understanding."  For  since  we  do  not  know 
the  law  of  the  creation  and  formation  of  animals,  surely 
God  has  created  them  on  the  condition  that  they  should 
be  killed  in  the  way  He  commanded  us. 

Do  we  not  also  find  a  great  difference  in  the  four  differ- 
ent ways  in  which  criminals  were  put  to  death  according 
to  the  dictates  of  the  Bible  and  the  decisions  of  Jewish 
courts?  And  no  criminal  was  allowed  to  be  put  to  death 
in  any  other  way  but  that  prescribed  by  the  Bible  for  his 
offence.  So  the  Bible  also  says  (Deut.  x.  13) :  "To  observe 
the  commandments  of  the  Lord,  and  His  statutes  which 
I  command  thee  this  day,  for  thy  good.  Behold,  the  heav- 
en and  the  heaven  of  heavens  are  the  Lord's  thy  God's." 
The  meaning  of  this  passage  of  the  Bible  is :  "Surely 
there  is  no  one  found  who  knows,  and  is  able  to  tell  what 
occurs  in  heaven  and  how  and  when  things  occur  there. 
Still,  all  these  things  are  revealed  and  known  to  God,  for 
nothing  occurs  without  Him. 

But  just  as  it  is  with  the  heaven,  so  it  is  with  the  earth 
and  all  which  it  contains.  God  created  the  earth  before 
man  was  created,  as  our  Rabbins  said  (Sanhedrin  38,  i) : 
"If  man  should  feel  tempted  to  become  proud,  he  can  be 
reminded  that  even  the  fly  was  created  before  him."  Con- 
sequently we  know  nothing  about  the  creatures  of  the 
earth  below  either.  But  everything  is  hidden  from  us,  as 
it  says  (Job.  xxxviii.  4) :  ''Where  wast  thou  when  I  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  earth?"  But  although  all  this  is  hid- 
den from  us,  still  to  God  it  is  revealed  and  known. 

Another  question   remains  yet  to  be  answered.     For  we 


50 

cannot  help  asking:  Has  God  created  the  whole  world,  in 
order  that  it  shall  be  ruled  by  mere  force?  For  we  see 
that  the  earth  is  full  of  violence.  Is  not,  for  instance,  the 
lion  desirous  of  tearing  to  pieces,  and  does  not  the  young 
lion  sit  in  secret  places  to  lie  in  wait?  God  also  answered 
Job  (Job  xxxviii.,  xxxix.  et  seq.) :  "Wilt  thou  hunt  the  prey 
for  the  lion?  or  fill  the  appetite  of  the  young  lion?  Who 
provideth  for  the  raven  of  his  food?"  Man  also  commits 
violence,  and  many  are  the  victims  of  violence  of  man. 
For  is  not  an  innumerable  quantity  of  oxen,  sheep,  rams, 
calves  and  birds  killed  every  day?  Now  it  is  true,  we  can 
clearly  see  that  these  animals  are  destined  to  serve  for  hu- 
man food.  For  were  it  not  that  in  a  supernatural  way 
God  causes  the  great  increase  of  these  animals,  they  could 
not  possibly  multiply  in  this  wonderful  way.  For  these 
animals,  as,  for  instance,  cows,  generally  bring  forth  only 
one  young  one  every  year.  It  is  therefore  quite  manifest 
that  God  causes  the  wonderful  increase  of  these  animals 
in  order  to  provide  man  with  food,  just  as  he  furnishes  man 
with  other  articles  of  food  also. 

But  nevertheless  depriving  animals  of  their  life  is  an  act 
of  violence.  Now  why  is  this  violence  allowed  by  God  to 
exist0 

But  we  know  that  some  kinds  of  poisonous  serpents  lie 
down  on  the  wayside  when  they  are  hungry.  If  then  an 
animal  passes  by  them,  they  send  forth  their  powerful  breath 
against  it.  The  animal  is  then  bewildered  and  charmed; 
it  then  begins  to  run  before  the  snake  in  a  circle,  and  at  last 
runs  into  the  ooen  iaws  of  the  snake  without  fear,  just  as 
if  it  did  find  safety  there 

We  see  now  that  this  poison  or  charm  of  the  snake  is 
beneficial  to  both  animals,  that  is,  to  the  animal  that  is 
charmed  and  devoured,  because  it  loses  its  sense  and  has 
no  pain :  and  to  the  devouring  animal,  the  snake,  because 
it  obtains  its  food  in  this  way. 

We  find  many  such  kinds  of  snakes,  which,  if  they  stare 
at  other  animals,  make  it  impossible  to  those  animals  to 
flee  from  them,  for  they  possess  the  power  of  holding  their 


51 

victims  with  their  eyes,  that  they  cannot  move  from  the 
spot,  just  as  the  loadstone  attracts  the  iron,  and  just  as  if 
feet  of  those  animals  were  tied  with  chains.  Divine  wisdom 
ordained  it  in  this  way. 

The  highest  Jewish  court,  the  Sanhedrin,  acted  in  a  simi- 
lar way.  If  a  culprit  was  taken  out  to  be  executed,  they 
gave  him  some  drug  which  deprived  him  of  his  senses  some- 
what, so  that  his  grief  about  his  death  was  lessened. 

Now  we  know  with  certainty  that  poisonous  substances 
very  often  are  very  beneficial  to  mankind,  and  therefore 
it  is  proper  that  poisonous  animals  should  feed  on  other  ani- 
mals, in  order  that  the  former  should  benefit  man.  For 
all  animals  have  been  created  for  the  best  of  mankind,  and 
the  destiny  of  all  animals  is  to  benefit  mankind,  and  they 
have  been  created  by  God  only  for  that  purpose. 

But  we  are  not  allowed  to  ask  the  further  question :  Why 
has  God  arranged  His  world  in  this  way?  For  His  infinite 
wisdom  ordained  it  so,  and  no  human  reason  can  fathom 
His  wisdom  and  remain  alive. 

In  this  way  we  have  also  to  explain  the  Biblical  verses 
(Psalms  cxlv.  15,  et  esq.) :  "The  eyes  of  all  wait  upon  Thee, 
and  Thou  givest  them  their  meat  in  due  season.  Thou 
openest  Thy  hand  and  satisfiest  the  desire  of  every  living 
thing.  The  Lord  is  righteous  in  all  His  ways." 

The  Psalmist's  words  teach  us  that  we  must  not  consider 
it  an  act  of  violence  that  one  animal  devours  another.  For 
the  ways  of  the  Lord  are  different  from  our  ways,  and  He 
is  righteous  according  to  His  ways,  and  holy  in  all  His 
works  according  to  His  ways.  In  His  wisdom  He  has 
created  the  world  that  it  should  be  the  way  it  is,  and  He 
is  a  truthful  and  merciful  king,  and  His  mercy  extends  to 
the  devouring  animal  as  well  as  to  the  devoured  animal. 

But  we  hope  that  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  will  be  fulfilled, 
which  reads  (Isaiah  xi.  7,  9) ;  "And  the  lion  will  eat  straw 
like  the  ox.  They  shall  not  hurt  nor  destroy.  For  the 
earth  shall  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  wat- 
ers cover  the  sea."  And  we  shall  pronounce  the  benedic- 


52 

tion  of  Shechitah,  and  eat  meat  according  to  our  hearts' 
desire. 

What  we  have  said  till  now  will  enable  anyone  who  has 
been  endowed  with  wisdom  and  knowledge  by  the  Divine 
Creator,  to  perceive  the  difference  between  death  brought 
on  by  Shechitah  and  all  other  manners  of  death. 

And  every  one  should  remind  the  members  of  his  family 
that  they  also  will  be  careful  about  the  precepts  of  Shechi- 
tah; for  sufficient  reasons  for  the  excellency  of  Shechitah 
have  been  given  in  the  above. 

I  shall  now  mention  a  conversation  and  an  argument 
which  I  had  with  three  excellent  physicians  about  the  tis- 
sues of  the  lungs  that  we  often  find  extending  from  one  part 
of  the  lungs  to  the  other. 

One  day,  three  excellent  physicians  came  to  me  into  the 
slaughter-house  and  found  me  engaged  in  trying  to  remove 
such  a  tissue  from  the  lungs  of  an  animal. 

I  tried  to  remove  it  by  repeatedly  leading  my  fingers 
over  it  very  gently.  After  I  had  succeeded  in  removing 
the  tissue,  I  examined  the  place  where  the  tissue  had  ad- 
hered to  the  lungs,  by  warm  water,  to  find  out  if  no  hole  had 
been  made  in  the  lungs,  by  separating  the  tissue  from  the 
lungs. 

Those  physicians  asked  me  what  all  that  meant  and  what  the 
name  of  the  sickness  was  which  could  make  the  flesh  of  an 
animal,  afflicted  with  it,  unlawful  food  for  Israelites.  I 
told  them  that  those  tissues  of  the  lungs  were  caused  by 
inflammation  of  the  lungs.  In  most  cases  the  inflammation 
has  made  a  hole  in  the  lungs.  When  the  inflammation 
has  ceased  and  the  animal  become  well  again,  a  membrane 
forms  and  closes  the  hole  in  the  lungs,  and  that  membrane 
extends  from  one  part  to  the  other  part  of  the  lungs. 

Those  physicians  told  me  I  was  right  and  the  same  was 
the  case  with  man.  If  the  lungs  are  inflamed  or  wounded, 
such  tissues  are  formed.  But  as  soon  as  those  tissues  are 
formed,  the  wound  is  healed  and  the  opening  in  the  lungs 
is  closed  up  and  need  not  be  minded  any  further. 
They  asked  me  why  the  Jewish  law  required  those  tissues 


53 

to  be  removed,  and  their  place  in  the  lungs  to  be  examined, 
if  no  hole  was  left  there.  For  even  if  a  hole  was  there,  there 
was  no  harm  in  it,  since  it  had  been  closed,  and  the  animal 
was  enabled  to  live  in  this  way. 

I  asked  these  physicians,  in  return,  what  they  prescribed 
to  a  man  who  had  such  a  sickness,  and  was  cured  from 
it,  and  how  they  prevented  a  reopening  of  the  hole 
by  the  tearing  of  the  tissue  that  had  formed  itself  over  that 
hole?  For  of  course,  as  soon  as  the  hole  gets  open  again, 
the  old  sickness  has  come  back. 

They  told  me :  Such  a  patient  must  be  warned  not  to 
go  out  in  rainy  or  snowy  or  foggy  weather.  He  must 
avoid  having  cold  feet.  He  must  be  very  careful  not  to  eat 
indigestible  food,  for  a  neglect  of  these  rules  might  bring  on 
a  relapse 

I  then  told  them :  Your  own  words  prove  the  correct- 
ness of  the  Jewish  law.  Man,  who  has  reason  and  free 
will,  to  do  what  is  salutary  to  him,  is  cured  by  the  closing 
of  a  hole  in  his  lungs ;  for  he  can  and  does  avoid  everything 
that  might  bring  on  the  disease  again. 

But  the  animal  is  in  the  power  of  man,  and  has  to  go 
wherever  man  wants  it  to  go,  and  that  in  all  kinds  of  weath- 
er, in  rain  or  in  snow,  in  the  severest  cold  or  in  the  most 
oppressive  heat-  To  be  sure,  we  cannot  speak  here  of  a  cure, 
because  the  hole  has  been  shut.  On  the  contrary,  the  sick- 
ness exists  yet,  just  as  if  the  hole  were  not  closed,  and  for 
that  reason  the  rule  is  with  us : 

Every  tissue  or  membrane  that  has  been  formed  in  an 
animal  in  consequence  of  a  wound  is  not  considered  a  mem- 
brane, the  animal  cannot  remain  alive,  and  is  therefore 
terepha  or  unfit  to  be  eaten. 

For  this  reason  I  make  an  examination  of  the  lungs,  as 
soon  as  I  observe  a  tissue  in  the  lungs  of  an  animal,  in  order 
to  find  out  if  a  hole  ever  was  there  or  not.  If  no  hole  ever 
was  there,  then  no  disease  was  there  either,  and  the  animal 
may  be  eaten  by  Israelites,  or  in  other  words :  the  animal 
is  kasher.  But  if  a  hole  ever  was  there,  the  animal  is  unfit 
to  be  eaten  by  Israelites,  and  it  is  terepha.  These  physicians 
agreed  with  me,  and  said  I  was  right  in  my  statements. 


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